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The purpose of this study is to investigate food supplement intake among gym-goers.

A cross-sectional study, using a validated questionnaire, was conducted. All participants were gym-goers who voluntarily enrolled from eight selected gyms in Perugia. A multivariate regression analysis was performed.

In our sample, 44.9per cent (n = 57) of participants consumed dietary supplements, at least once a week, with no association with sex (p = 0.5) and educational level (p = 0.4). Supplements intake was statistically significant and associated with very low intake of mineral water (p = 0.01), diet specific for fitness programmes (p < 0.01), information about nutrition from personal trainers (p < 0.01), frequency of physical activity (p = 0.01), society’s attention to nutrition (p = 0.04) and marginally with frequency of weigh control (p = 0.05).

Food supplements intake seems to be extensively used among gym-goers, and it seems related to information about nutrition from personal trainers. However, specialized personnel, such as dietitian or nutritionist, should supervise supplements intake.

This chapter introduces the main aims and ambition with the anthology, which is to bring together research from diverse perspectives on doping and Image and Performance Enhancing Drug (IPED) use. The chapter highlights existing but often backgrounded links between sport and fitness doping research and present a re-reading of the cultural history of doping through which simplistic divisions, such as that between sport and fitness, are deconstructed. Further, by unbinding the hegemonic divide between sports doping and fitness doping, new insights (and themes) concerning anti-doping, health and risk, new emerging doping spaces and the gendering of this field of research are brought to the fore. These themes are then used as point of departure when introducing the different chapters and scholars that contribute to the volume at hand.

With retailers selling products to and even opening stores for metrosexuals, they are now well recognised in many western countries; however, market sizing, measurement and understanding their psychology remain understudied. The purpose of this paper is to conceptualise and operationalise the metrosexual lifestyle and examine a number of its psychological correlates.

Using a survey with two samples, a scale is developed to measure metrosexuality and validated using structural equation modelling.

Metrosexuality was found to have three dimensions: trendiness, concern with appearance, and use of grooming practices, while its antecedents of gender-identity confusion and narcissism are mediated by masculinity and vanity. Metrosexuality is associated with lower levels of masculinity, but not with increased femininity and is slightly associated with homosexual orientation.

One of the theoretical implications of the new metrosexuality scale is that it may be incorporated in the general theories of lifestyle and consumption, extended self-concept as well as aesthetic motivations of consumption.

On a practical level, a scale to measure their metrosexuality can be used to help retailers to measure and track the size for forecasting and targeting purposes as well as allowing retailers to better design environments and products for this market.

No study has previously attempted to devise a scale to measure metrosexuality nor seek to establish if there is any psychological substance behind the media hype by looking quantitatively at its psychological antecedents. This study is the first to define, measure and validate a scale for metrosexuality and contributes to an understanding of individuals who are an increasing part of society.

Technology for fitness provides users with numerous features that aid the achievement of intended fitness/health goals such as checking consumption habits and adherence to exercise. Based upon the concepts of self-efficacy and prospect theories, this study aims to inspect the influence of messages frame on behavioral usage of virtual reality (VR) technology intervened fitness exercise.

By usage of a laboratory-based experiment commissioning certain fitness exercises, this study is conducted on 150 respondents. An assessment is conducted on the efficiency of gain appeal mechanism (exercise performance feedback) toward the usage of VR intervened fitness exercise and measured surge in exercise self-efficacy (ESE), playfulness (PL) and outcome expectations.

The results show that gain-appealed/framed messages prove advantageous over loss-appealed/framed in performing VR intervened exercises. A bootstrapped (method) mediation analysis confirms higher positive effects of gain-framed messages upon intentions to use VR intervened fitness exercise. VR intervened fitness exercise was strongly and positively mediated by ESE, PL and outcome expectations.

This study is of help to researchers and marketers trying to understand the role played by gain- and loss-framed messages on VR technology enabled fitness exercises.

This study helps VR and fitness technology developers and marketers understand the effectiveness of persuasive performance messages toward VR fitness exercise technology adoption amalgamating message intervention with better technology usage.

This chapter concludes the volume. This is done in two capacities. First, the contributing chapters within in each theme are brought together through a reflexive discussion on current debates on anti-doping approaches, health and risk, doping arenas and communities, and the gendering of doping. Second, the interrelationships between the themes are discussed, pointing to new research directions.

In our society, there are some trends that are not exciting. We are living increasingly in an aging society and we are becoming fatter (globesity). Moreover, we are facing an alarming decline in physical activity (PA) worldwide. In this context, chronic diseases are booming and health expenditures are skyrocketing. Stimulating PA is likely the best way to reduce the burden of disease and increase the social, psychological, and economic well-being of a community. In this chapter, two projects aimed at increasing PA among individuals are presented. The key point of the two projects is that they medicalize PA. The first project was carried out in Italy. A series of doctors started to “prescribe” PA as if it were a medicine. Therefore, PA is presented as a real cure to treat diseases and pathologies. The other project was supported by a private enterprise. The “concept” of the project is summarized as follows: “The quantity and quality of the physical activity carried out by the patient should be considered by the general practitioner as a clinical parameter as well as other parameters, such as blood pressure, weight, and glucose level.” It is possible that the success of these two initiatives stems from the fact that the biomedical complex has a strong influence on the part of the population. It is very effective to use a reliable source to spread a health promotion message. It becomes a medicalization without pathologization and a form of medicalization without pharmacologicalization. In Conrad’s (2007) words, it becomes a conceptual medicalization.