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Describes intuitively the fact that four types of formal languages can be generated by four types of grammars or can be recognized by four types of automata. Gives the relationships between context‐sensitive languages and computer programming languages. Defines and investigates parallel productions, parallel grammars, and context‐free parallel grammars. Shows that context‐sensitive languages exist which can be generated by context‐free parallel grammars. In addition, states the advantages of context‐free parallel grammars. Also shows that context‐free languages (CFL) are a proper subset of context‐free parallel languages (CFPL). Furthermore, CFPL is a more effective tool for modelling computer programming languages than CFL, especially for parallel computer programming languages, for example, the ADA programming language. Also illustrates context‐sensitive property of recognizing hand‐written characters. The results may have useful applications in artificial intelligence, model parallel computer programming languages, software engineering, expert systems and robotics.

Contextualizing grammar in second language (L2) classrooms implies making grammar constructs relevant to the learners’ world; affording learners the opportunities to better comprehend and apply these concepts in their own milieus. This instructional design (ID) has been devised to contextualize grammar and to explore learner engagement of pre-service English teachers through Computer-Aided Learning (CAL) and Task-based Learning (TBL) in a technology-driven learning environment. CAL encompasses technology-aided discussions, multi-media presentations, online tests and exercises, and social media deployment. TBL, on the other hand, contextualizes grammar using technology and social network in planning, executing, and presenting four assigned tasks: picture essay, brochure design, dialogue composition, and comic strips illustration. Facebook is the e-portfolio of the class, archiving all group and individual output. The CAL-TBL tandem is propelled by group initiatives and class collaboration evident in group discussions and planning, microteaching, task presentations, peer reviews, and self-evaluations. These initiatives engage learners; empowering students to collaboratively take active part and responsibility for their own learning. The three-hour-class meets every week in a computer laboratory. The post-semester feedback and online poll course design review as well as the University Course Evaluation comments have shown that the ID, from the learners’ perspective, is effective in contextualizing grammar and in engaging learners.

In this article, we make the point that managerial domination as described by pragmatic sociology is an appropriate notion to make sense of complex forms of domination in contemporary organizations. Based on Lemieux’s work on ‘grammars’, we complement approaches of complex domination put forward by pragmatic sociologists such as Boltanski and Thévenot. We illustrate these ideas by means of an ethnographic study of the financial intermediation industry. Our analysis sketches out an alternative conceptualization of power in such environments, and by so doing, helps us delineate the features that characterize complex financial domination. We conclude by arguing that this type of domination is the result of specific contradictions inherent to the grammars of financial intermediation.

This study examines how writing teachers manage linguistic ideological dilemmas (LIDs) around grammar instruction and highlights productive strategies employed by one teacher in an instructional unit on poetry. We conducted semi-structured interviews with nine elementary and middle-school teachers to better understand how they conceptualized and enacted writing pedagogies in urban classrooms. Then, we documented the teaching practices of one teacher during a 9-week case study. We describe three LIDs expressed by the teachers we interviewed: (1) a perception of greater linguistic flexibility in speech than in writing; (2) a sense that attention to grammar in feedback can enhance and/or inhibit written communication; and (3) apprehension about whether grammar instruction empowers or marginalizes linguistically minoritized students. We also highlight three productive strategies for teaching grammar while valuing linguistic diversity employed by one teacher: (1) selecting mentor texts that showcase a range of grammars; (2) modeling code-meshing practices; and (3) privileging alternative grammars while grading written work. We describe how teachers might take up pedagogical practices that support linguistic diversity, such as evaluating written assignments in more flexible ways, engaging in contrastive analysis, and teaching students to resist and rewrite existing language rules.

Aiming at the problems of weak generalization of robot imitation learning methods and higher accuracy requirements of low-level detectors, this study aims to propose an imitation learning method based on structural grammar.

The paper proposes a hybrid training model based on artificial immune algorithm and the Baum–Welch algorithm to extract the action information of the demonstration activity to form the {action-object} sequence and extract the symbol description of the scene to form the symbol primitives sequence. Then, probabilistic context-free grammar is used to characterize and manipulate these sequences to form a grammar space. Minimum description length criteria are used to evaluate the quality of the grammar in the grammar space, and the improved beam search algorithm is used to find the optimal grammar.

It is found that the obtained general structure can parse the symbol primitive sequence containing noise and obtain the correct sequence, thereby guiding the robot to perform more complex and higher-order demonstration tasks.

Using this strategy, the robot completes the fourth-order Hanoi tower task has been verified.

An imitation learning method for robots based on structural grammar is first proposed. The experimental results show that the method has strong generalization ability and good anti-interference performance.

This paper aims to examine the impact of using visual grammar on learning participle adjectives by EFL (English as a Foreign Language) learners.

The study follows an experimental design in which two groups participated in the study. The experimental group used visual grammar tools in learning participle adjectives. The control group was taught the participle adjectives in a traditional way. A pre–post test was designed and presented to the participants in the two groups.

The results showed that the experimental group made statistically significant improvements in their performance in using participle adjectives due to the use of visual grammar tools.

The current study is only limited to the effect of visual images on a particular grammatical issue, that is participle adjectives. Besides, the study does not include the gender variable; there may be variation in the results depending on the variable of gender.

The present study can provide language instructors with some guidelines on how to incorporate visual grammar applications in teaching grammar aspects. Learners can also be encouraged to have a better understanding of English grammar, using the different connotations of visual images.

Using visual images in teaching grammar will increase the learners' ability to think beyond their classroom environment. They can use this experience whenever they face visual images in different societal activities.

This paper is one of the initial attempts to investigate the effect of using visual grammar on learning participle adjectives.

The purpose of this paper is to consider the secure publishing of XML documents, where a single copy of an XML document is disseminated and a stated role‐based access control policy (RBACP) is enforced via selective encryption. It describes a more efficient solution over previously proposed approaches, in which both policy specification and key generation are performed once, at the schema‐level. In lieu of the commonly used super‐encryption technique, in which nodes residing in the intersection of multiple roles are encrypted with multiple keys, it describes a new approach called multi‐encryption that guarantees each node is encrypted at most once.

This paper describes two alternative algorithms for key generation and single‐pass algorithms for multi‐encrypting and decrypting a document. The solution typically results in a smaller number of keys being distributed to each user.

The paper proves the correctness of the presented algorithms, and provides experimental results indicating the superiority of multi‐encryption over super‐encryption, in terms of encryption and decryption time requirements. It also demonstrates the scalability of the approach as the size of the input document and complexity of the schema‐level RBACP are increased.

An extension of this work involves designing and implementing re‐usability of keyrings when a schema or ACP is modified. In addition, more flexible solutions for handling cycles in schema graphs are possible. The current solution encounters difficulty when schema graphs are particularly deep and broad.

The experimental results indicate that the proposed approach is scalable, and is applicable to scenarios in which XML documents conforming to a common schema are to be securely published.

This paper contributes to the efficient implementation of secure XML publication systems.

This second part of a companion paper seeks to extend the theory proposed to apply the hierarchy of fuzzy formal language to cope with the three major phenomenon of life: replication, control and shuffling of genetic information.

In order to cope with the proposal, three new classes of FFG are proposed: replicating grammars: to formalize properties and consequences of DNA duplication; self‐controlled grammars: to provide the tools to control the grammar ambiguity and to improve adaptability, and recombinant grammars: to formalize properties and consequences of the sexual reproduction to life evolution. Considering all these facts, FFG are proposed as the key instrument to formalize the basic properties of the chemical transactions supporting life.

The formalism of the model provides a new way to analyze and interpret the findings of the different genome sequencing projects.

The theoretical framework developed here provides a new perspective of understanding the code of life and evolution.

This research aims to propose an attack that de-obfuscates codes by exploiting the properties of context-free grammars since it is important to understand the strength of obfuscation provided by context-free grammar-based obfuscators. In addition, the possibility of automatically generated transformations is explored.

As part of our empirical investigation, a development environment for obfuscating transformations is built. The tool is used to simulate a context-free obfuscator and to devise ways of reversing such transformations. Furthermore, a theoretical investigation of subset grammars and subset languages is carried out.

It is concluded that context-free grammar-based obfuscators provide limited levels of protection. Nevertheless, their application is appropriate when combined with other obfuscating techniques.

The algorithms behave as expected on a limited number of test samples. Further work is required to increase their practicality and to establish their average reliability.

This research shows how a frequency analysis attack can threaten the security of code scrambled by context-free grammar-based obfuscators.

Gives a broad understanding of multi‐agent systems and relates it to the generative paradigm of studying complex systems. Demonstrates the functioning of the multi‐agent paradigm in some approaches in artificial intelligence and in some closely related fields. After sketching a specific approach to formalization of multi‐agent systems using tools and techniques of the theory of formal grammars and languages, gives a preview of the main developmental lines of the theory of grammar systems.