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The purpose of this paper is to examine the effects of bank mergers on systemic and systematic risks on the relative merits of product and market diversification strategies. It also observes determinants of M&A deals criteria, product and market diversification positioning, crisis threshold and other regulatory and market factors.

This research examines the impact and association between merger announcements and regulatory reforms at bank and system levels by investigating the impact of various bank consolidation strategies on firms’ risks. We estimate beta(s) as an index of financial institutions’ systematic risk. We then develop an index of the estimated equity value loss as the long-rum marginal expected shortfall (LRMES). LRMES contributes to compute systemic risk (SRISK) contribution of these firms, which is the capital that a firm is expected to need if we have another financial crisis.

Large acquiring banks decrease systemic risk contribution in cross-border M&As with a non-bank financial institution, and witness profitability (ROA) gains, supporting geographic diversification stability. Capital requirements, activity restrictions and bank concentration increase systemic risk contribution in national mergers. Bank mergers with investment FIs targets enhance productivity but impair technical efficiency, contrary to bank-real estate deals where technical efficiency change accompanied lower systemic risk contribution.

Financial institutions are recommended to avoid trapped capital and liquidity by efficiently using local balance sheet and strengthening them via implementing models that clearly set diversification and netting benefits to determine capital reserves and to drive capital efficiency through the clarity on product–activity–geography diversification and focus. This contributes to successful ringfencing, decreases compliance costs and maximises returns and minimises several risks including systemic risk.

Policy implications: the adversative properties of bank mergers in respect of systemic risk require strict and innovative monitoring of bank mergers from the bidding level by both acquirers and targets and regulators and competition supervisory bodies. Moreover, emphasis on regulators/governments intervention and role, as it provides a stabilising factor of the markets and consecutively lower systemic risk even if the systematic idiosyncratic risk contribution was significant. However, such roles have to be well planned and scaled to avoid providing motives for banks to seek too-big-too-fail or too-big-to-discipline status.

This research contributes to the renewing regulatory debate on banks sustainable structures by examining the risk effect of bank diversification versus focus. The authors aim to address the multidimensional impacts and risks inherent to M&A deals, by examining the extent of the interconnectedness of M&A and its implications within and beyond the banking sector.

Despite the relevance of firm size in the analysis of corporate social responsibility (CSR) engagement, there is still much to know about the specific impact of firm size on CSR formalisation. Moreover, in order to better understand such a relation, the interaction effects of development strategies on which companies may base its growth, namely diversification and internationalisation, will be also taken into account. Specifically, this work contributes to shed light on these issues by combining theories related to external and internal drivers of CSR. Using a sample of Spanish listed firms, the results show that firm size affects positively CSR formalisation, and that this effect is stronger in the case of adopting a diversification strategy, while no evidence was found for the moderating effect of internationalisation strategy.

Drawing on the literature on corporate diversification, the purpose of this paper is to shed light onto the influence of geographic dispersion on the effectiveness of control mechanisms in related diversified corporations. This research contends that control mechanisms implemented by corporations and the extent of geographic diversification play a role in the synergies expected from related diversification being realized.

This study uses OLS regression to analyze data collected through surveys from managers of 193 Iranian corporations and their 2,704 subsidiaries to examine the relationship between relatedness, corporate performance, geographic dispersion, and emphasis of strategic controls.

The author finds that a triple interaction effect between corporate strategy (diversification approach), controls mechanisms, and the extent of geographic diversification influences the overall performance of corporations. Findings of this research suggest that the positive effects of strategic controls in related diversified corporations are most when there is less geographic dispersion and will attenuate as corporations become more geographically disperse.

The findings of this research, have contributed to the extant literature in several ways. First, the findings further establish the superiority of related diversification to unrelated diversification in achieving economic performance in corporations. The findings reveal that, ceteris paribus, the more relatedness between activities of subsidiaries in corporations exists, higher performance can be expected at the corporate level. Second, the findings show once more that to achieve the higher performance that results from synergies in related diversified corporations, emphasis of strategic controls play a crucial and important role. Third, the author find that although the emphasis of strategic controls in essential to realizing the potentials in related diversified corporations, greater geographic dispersion attenuates the positive effects expected from stricter enforcement of strategic control mechanisms.

An important consequence of findings of this research is that managers should be more aware of the implications of selecting the geographic location of the subsidiaries that they either acquire or establish. While the literature focusing on corporate diversification has mainly focused on the differences between related and unrelated diversification, this paper brings a new factor into light. Therefore, the findings of this research provide the author with a better understanding of the factors that define success or failure in achieving financial objectives of corporations.

There has been very little done to investigate the factors that influence effectiveness of strategic controls in related diversified corporation. Much of this shortcoming has resulted due to difficulties in measurement of strategic controls their operationalization in empirical studies. This study has taken a step to that direction and therefore, provides a more coherent and clear picture of the factors that influence the overall performance in corporations.

This study utilises a large sector‐regional real estate data set, based on actual properties in more than 187 locations in the UK over the period 1981‐1995. This is subjected to a portfolio analysis using an algorithm based on mean absolute deviation as the measure of risk. The algorithm is especially effective when the number of assets is greater than the number of time periods, as is typically the case within a real estate portfolio analysis. In addition, such a large data set enables a comparison of the performance of several “conventional” regional classifications with one based on economic (Functional) criteria. The general conclusion to be drawn from this is that diversification by sectors across a Super Region would have outperformed almost all other diversification strategies. However, in comparing Functional grouping with this Super Regional approach, this economically based classification produced results that were equally good.

This study explores the effect of income diversification strategy on credit risk and market risk of microfinance institutions (MFIs) in Ghana as an emerging market.

The study is based on quarterly data of averagely 271 MFIs that have operated from 2016 to 2018. The dataset is unbalanced and pooled cross-sectional with 3,259 data points. The study measures the diversification strategy using income diversification indices, and accounting ratios to measure the other variables. We utilised the weighted least squares (WLS) approach to explore the nexus.

The findings show that income diversification is associated with better loan quality and credit risk management. Market risk increases with the level of income diversification of microfinance firms. It is evident that large MFIs can manage their credit risks well and can have a low default rate, depicting an overall U-shaped nexus. On the other hand, the effect of size on market risk is an inverted U-shaped. The effect of asset tangibility on credit risk is positively significant while the effect on market risk is negatively significant. High profitability enhances credit risk management leading to lower loan losses while in the case of diversified and profitable MFIs, they tend to invest more in government securities. The results suggest that MFIs that hold more cash and cash equivalents tend to have high loan loss provision and more government securities suggesting much attention should be paid to optimal cash management.

The results throw light on the credit risk and market risk profile of the firms and the effect of diversification strategies on them. The findings are relevant for effective macroprudential regulation, market regulation and prudential regulation of the microfinance sector.

The findings reveal the nature of income diversification strategy of MFIs in emerging markets such as Ghana, pointing out how they affect the risk exposure of MFIs that lend to the pro-poor population.

This is a premier formal assessment of the nexus between income diversification strategies and risk management among MFIs that serve the pro-poor population in the emerging market context.

The purpose of this paper is to test the Porter hypothesis using the Structure–Conduct–Performance (SCP) framework for a panel data set of industries in New Zealand.

The authors developed a mutually exclusive classification of the process-led and product-led innovation strategies and examined their impact on SCP in the high (low) carbon emission industries.

The findings show that the high-level concentration provides more beneficial opportunities for product and geographical diversification that require a high level of R&D intensity. The authors find that in high-carbon emission industries, the product-led innovation strategies have a significant positive impact on the industry structure and performance which provide support for the Porter hypothesis.

The findings imply that competition effects firm-level investments, in particular, capital expenditure to address carbon emissions, as such investments give firms a head start over rivals, and increase their profit margin compared to other firms over time. Overall, the empirical results lend support to the Porter hypothesis and suggest that understanding of industries’ unique R&D attributes is critical to developing regulations to support industries in smaller economies.

It is the first study that examines the industry structure, R&D intensity and performance in a small developed economy of New Zealand.

The purpose of this study is to investigate the moderating role of CEO duality on the geographic diversification–firm performance relationship in the US lodging industry.

To examine the individual effect of geographic diversification and the moderating effect of CEO duality, this study adopts random effects regression. Additionally, to appropriately address the endogeneity issue, this study uses random effects regression with the instrumental variable method. The sample period spans 1990-2015 and 258 firm-year observations are included.

This study finds that geographic diversification has a positive and significant effect on firm performance. Also, the result shows a positive and significant moderating role of CEO duality, which implies that the magnitude of the impact of geographic diversification on firm performance is significantly greater when CEO duality exists.

Although it has a limitation of applying the results of this study to privately held lodging firms in other countries, US public lodging firms are encouraged to consider a corporate governance structure incorporating CEO duality to maximize the effect of geographic diversification on firm performance.

This study contributes to the hospitality literature by providing a unique dimension that the influence of geographic diversification is contingent on the adoption of CEO duality. And, the results of this study provide practical guidelines for the lodging firms’ implementation of geographic diversification.

The purpose of this paper is to address how firms adapt their product and geographic diversification as a response to foreign rivals penetrating their domestic market by adopting a behavioral perspective to understand firm-level strategic responses to foreign entry.

The study proposes that strategic responses to foreign entry selected by domestic incumbents have both a framing component and a related, strategic choice component, with the latter including changes in product and geographic market diversification (though other more business strategy-related responses are also possible, e.g. in product pricing and marketing). This study tests a set of hypotheses building on panel data of large US firms.

The study finds, in accordance with our predictions, that domestic incumbents reduce their product and geographic diversification when facing an increase in import penetration. However, when increased market penetration by foreign firms takes the form of FDI rather than imports, the corporate response appears to be an increase in product and geographic diversification, again in line with our predictions.

The study develops a new conceptual framework that is grounded in prospect theory, but builds on recent insights from mainstream international strategic management studies (Bowen and Wiersema, 2005; Wiersema and Bowen, 2008).

The aim of this paper is to investigate how e‐commerce may influence international and product diversification.

The current study elaborates the importance of resource‐based and resource dependence theory to illustrate how internal and external resources may enable firms to diversify. Prior studies on resource‐based theory, resource dependence theory, international diversification, product diversification, and IT capabilities have been presented to show gaps in the literature and identify avenues for future research.

This paper has established a theoretical perspective on the importance of external resources or infrastructure, as well as firm‐specific capabilities, on encouraging product and international diversification. A model has been developed and propositions given.

Future studies on this topic will need to empirically test the model given in this paper, in order to manage all of the interconnected variables and mediators developed in this study.

Utilization of the internet may provide a means for firms to offer “one‐stop shopping” for customers, and may even encourage firms to diversify internationally. Furthermore, important firm‐specific IT capabilities of financial services firms may be extended geographically and by product line, and combined with utilization of the internet, may improve firm performance.

This study compares and contrasts the role of internal and external resources, and assesses whether they will demonstrate a greater effect upon international or product diversification.

This study employs learning‐based theory to shed light on performance among newly internationalizing companies. Earlier studies have suggested that learning is an important goal for firms pursuing international diversification. Unlike previous studies which have focused their attention on one aspect of learning, this study examines three kinds of learning from internationalization: technological, market, and social. The impact of top management's prior international experience and cultural diversity on the three types of learning were also examined to understand their contingency effects. Consistent with social capital theory, external networks with suppliers and customers are a major contributor to a firm's international performance. Also, the findings for the influence of market learning on firm performance support the assumptions underlying the resource‐based view of the firm. However, mixed results were obtained for the relationship between technological learning and firm performance. Implications and directions for future research are discussed.