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The purpose of this paper is to investigate the role of peer learning and formative assessment as two creative learning methods in engineering learning environments. The results show that both models have yielded promising results with regard to meeting the criteria for the expected learning outcomes of the curriculum. However, the integrated model has resulted in better results than the model of formative assessment. The paper discusses also some practical and theoretical aspects related to the learning models.

It is advanced two general learning models; in the first model, the formative assessment is integrated with peer learning and in the second one, the formative assessment is solely used to enhance the learning. A field case study is conducted to investigate the effect of using the learning models on the expected learning outcomes of the students in an engineering course.

The results show that both learning models have yielded promising results with regard to meeting the criteria for the expected learning outcomes of the curriculum. However, the integrated model has resulted in better results than the model of formative assessment.

The two models can be applied for the engineering course that has both practical and theoretical aspects. It is expected that areas of expertize in engineering education can be developed very well with the models.

The results show that the two learning models have yielded promising results with regard to meeting the criteria for the expected learning outcomes of the curriculum and that formative assessment link to good learning practice does indeed give improved learning.

Increase the effectiveness of learning in engineering education.

Case study based on observation and planning.

Most empirical balanced scorecard (BSC) studies have shown a tendency to wrongly employ reflective indicators instead of the more theoretically suitable formative indicators. However, formative indicators are difficult to apply due to the lack of statistical software support and a standardized model testing method. The paper aims to discuss these issues.

This study empirically compares the reflective and formative measurement method with standardized model comparison criteria. After collecting 217 valid questionnaires from companies in South Korea, the authors applied a structural equation modeling technique to analyze the data.

The result shows that the formative measure provides greater validity for the corporate performance measurement using BSC. Further, this study shows the indicators’ relative influence on each BSC perspectives using the formative measure.

This study proved the usefulness of the formative measure analysis method and suggested its practical use, focusing on the indicators most useful in developing corporate strategies. In addition, the authors showed that formative indicators could be used in the corporate environment by overcoming the limitations of conventional studies that were confined to causal relationships with latent variables.

This study may be the pioneering work that compares formative and reflective indicators simultaneously, addressing the usefulness of formative measurement and its application validity in the existing empirical studies using reflective measurements.

Information and communications technology (ICT) offers enormous opportunities for individuals, businesses and society. The application of ICT is equally important to economic and non-economic activities. Researchers have increasingly focused on the adoption and use of ICT by small and medium enterprises (SMEs) as the economic development of a country is largely dependent on them. Following the success of ICT utilisation in SMEs in developed countries, many developing countries are looking to utilise the potential of the technology to develop SMEs. Past studies have shown that the contribution of ICT to the performance of SMEs is not clear and certain. Thus, it is crucial to determine the effectiveness of ICT in generating firm performance since this has implications for SMEs’ expenditure on the technology. This research examines the diffusion of ICT among SMEs with respect to the typical stages from innovation adoption to post-adoption, by analysing the actual usage of ICT and value creation. The mediating effects of integration and utilisation on SME performance are also studied. Grounded in the innovation diffusion literature, institutional theory and resource-based theory, this study has developed a comprehensive integrated research model focused on the research objectives. Following a positivist research paradigm, this study employs a mixed-method research approach. A preliminary conceptual framework is developed through an extensive literature review and is refined by results from an in-depth field study. During the field study, a total of 11 SME owners or decision-makers were interviewed. The recorded interviews were transcribed and analysed using NVivo 10 to refine the model to develop the research hypotheses. The final research model is composed of 30 first-order and five higher-order constructs which involve both reflective and formative measures. Partial least squares-based structural equation modelling (PLS-SEM) is employed to test the theoretical model with a cross-sectional data set of 282 SMEs in Bangladesh. Survey data were collected using a structured questionnaire issued to SMEs selected by applying a stratified random sampling technique. The structural equation modelling utilises a two-step procedure of data analysis. Prior to estimating the structural model, the measurement model is examined for construct validity of the study variables (i.e. convergent and discriminant validity).

The estimates show cognitive evaluation as an important antecedent for expectation which is shaped primarily by the entrepreneurs’ beliefs (perception) and also influenced by the owners’ innovativeness and culture. Culture further influences expectation. The study finds that facilitating condition, environmental pressure and country readiness are important antecedents of expectation and ICT use. The results also reveal that integration and the degree of ICT utilisation significantly affect SMEs’ performance. Surprisingly, the findings do not reveal any significant impact of ICT usage on performance which apparently suggests the possibility of the ICT productivity paradox. However, the analysis finally proves the non-existence of the paradox by demonstrating the mediating role of ICT integration and degree of utilisation explain the influence of information technology (IT) usage on firm performance which is consistent with the resource-based theory. The results suggest that the use of ICT can enhance SMEs’ performance if the technology is integrated and properly utilised. SME owners or managers, interested stakeholders and policy makers may follow the study’s outcomes and focus on ICT integration and degree of utilisation with a view to attaining superior organisational performance.

This study urges concerned business enterprises and government to look at the environmental and cultural factors with a view to achieving ICT usage success in terms of enhanced firm performance. In particular, improving organisational practices and procedures by eliminating the traditional power distance inside organisations and implementing necessary rules and regulations are important actions for managing environmental and cultural uncertainties. The application of a Bengali user interface may help to ensure the productivity of ICT use by SMEs in Bangladesh. Establishing a favourable national technology infrastructure and legal environment may contribute positively to improving the overall situation. This study also suggests some changes and modifications in the country’s existing policies and strategies. The government and policy makers should undertake mass promotional programs to disseminate information about the various uses of computers and their contribution in developing better organisational performance. Organising specialised training programs for SME capacity building may succeed in attaining the motivation for SMEs to use ICT. Ensuring easy access to the technology by providing loans, grants and subsidies is important. Various stakeholders, partners and related organisations should come forward to support government policies and priorities in order to ensure the productive use of ICT among SMEs which finally will help to foster Bangladesh’s economic development.

To clarify the nature of the error term in formative measurement models, as it had been misinterpreted in prior research.

The error term in formative measurement models is analytically contrasted with the measurement errors typically found in reflective measurement models.

It is demonstrated that, unlike in reflective measurement, the error term in formative models is not measurement error but rather a disturbance representing non‐modeled causes. It is also shown that, under certain circumstances, the inclusion of an error term is not necessary/appropriate.

Focus is only on first‐order measurement models; higher‐order specifications are not considered.

The paper helps researchers in their initial specification of formative measurement models as well as their evaluation of the subsequent model estimates, leading to better specifications for formative constructs.

Since the publication of Venkatraman and Grant's (1986) article two decades ago, considerably more attention has been directed at establishing the validity of constructs in the strategy literature. However, recent developments in measurement theory indicate that strategy researchers need to pay additional attention to whether their constructs should be modeled as having formative or reflective indicators. Therefore, the purpose of this chapter is to highlight the differences between formative and reflective indicator measurement models, and discuss the potential role of formative measurement models in strategy research. First, we systematically review the literature on construct measurement model specification. Second, we assess the extent of measurement model misspecification in the recent strategy literature. Our assessment of 257 constructs in the contemporary strategy literature suggests that many important strategy constructs are more appropriately modeled as having formative indicators than as having reflective indicators. Based on this review, we identify some common errors leading to measurement model misspecification in the strategy domain. Finally, we discuss some implications of our analyses for scholars in the strategic management field.

The purpose of this paper is to provide an understanding of the issues related to formative modeling and the implications for its use, including some practical suggestions on methods for utilizing causal indicators within models.

In order to understand and explore the issues relating to formative models, this paper explores both formative and reflective indicators that together address the basic approach to the causal relationship within measurement models in structural equations modeling. Process recommendations for formative model/variable conceptualization and development are presented as well as a discussion of several evaluative issues including identification and proportionality. Some of the main arguments for and against its use are also discussed.

While the literature on formative models stresses its contribution to behavioral sciences, perhaps its greatest contribution is the flexibility of choice that it provides researchers in the development of models to more accurately estimate the relationship under consideration.

The paper contributes to the on-going debate on the relative advantages and disadvantages of the formative and reflective approaches to modeling and examination. Although the pendulum has swung in recent years away from an almost singular focus on reflective models, both approaches provide useful and complementary tools to theoretical management research modeling.

This paper aims to discuss the estimation of PLS models with second-order formative constructs as existing research has mainly focused on second-order constructs with a reflective measurement.

Using a model grounded on Roger’s innovation diffusion theory applied to online travel shopping, an empirical application is used to assess and compare the different approaches used to estimate a formative second-order construct. The proposed model examines the innovations characteristics that have an impact on intentions to purchase travel online, using data from a convenience sample of 1,732 responses.

The findings show that all approaches produce similar results regarding the path coefficients, the predictive relevance of the model and the explained variance. The main differences between the approaches are related to the weights of the first-order constructs on the second-order construct and the significance of those weights. Several recommendations are made for researchers on which approach to use.

Since most research has focused on second-order constructs with a reflective measurement and there is limited research with formative second-order constructs, this paper provides a comparison of the different approaches typically used to estimate a formative second-order construct and present useful guidelines for researchers to decide the method to analyse a model with second-order constructs and how to assess formative second-order constructs.

由于现有文章大多数研究反应性结构的二阶模型, 所以本论文讨论以二阶形成性结构的PLS模型。

本论文以罗杰斯的创新扩散模型以基础, 应用其在在线旅游购物行为的研究。通过模型建立和背景研究, 多种预估形成性二阶结构的方法得以比较。建立的模型, 通过1,732份样本采样, 分析了各种对于在线购买旅游产品意图的创新特性。

本论文发现, 各种方法产生相似的分析结果, 比如径路系数、模型预测相关、以及被解释变量等。三种方法的主要区别在于, 第一阶段结构与第二阶段结构的比重值, 还有这些比重值的显著程度。本论文结果对于未来理论采用哪种方法做出启示。

由于大多数研究都集中在以反应性二阶结构分析, 很少的文章研究形成性二阶结构。因此, 本论文全面地比较了三种衡量形成性二阶结构的方法, 并且提供有效建议, 采用哪种方式以分析二阶结构, 以及如何衡量形成性二阶结构。

旅游业、在线旅游购物行为、偏最小二乘回归，二阶形成性结构

研究论文

Purpose – Despite the increasing use of formative measurement models in literature, little is known about potential consequences for substantive theory testing. Against this background, the aims of this chapter are (1) to highlight some problems that may arise when formative instead of reflective measures are used to test even simple theoretical models with covarianced-based methodologies, (2) to illustrate some approaches that might help overcome these problems, (3) to pinpoint potential interpretation difficulties of the results involving re-specified measurement models, and (4) to stimulate discussion on the implications for theory development when models are tested with formative measures.

Methodology/approach – Potential consequences of formative measurement models for theory testing are highlighted using an empirical study on consumer animosity as an illustrative example and applying covarianced-based structural equations modeling procedures for estimation purposes.

Findings – The empirical study shows (a) that some scaling options for the (composite) latent variable result in non-convergence problems, (b) that, assuming convergence, parameter estimates, standard errors, and significance levels vary depending on the scaling method used, and (c) that goodness-of-fit statistics cannot be used as diagnostic measures for the appropriateness of divergent results.

Originality/value of paper – The contribution of this chapter is two-fold: First, it shows that to enable estimation, it is often necessary to modify (i.e., expand) the original theoretical model in a conceptually reasonable manner and to do so before data collection. Second, it demonstrates that alternative scaling options for composite latent variables may result in inconsistent substantive conclusions. Consequently, the impact of formative measurement on theory testing is a critical topic and needs to receive further attention in future literature.

The purpose of this paper is to test and compare different conceptual approaches for perceived value in a service context.

Perceived value is an outcome construct that results from various benefits received and sacrifices devoted to achieve a particular exchange of a service. The paper compares three different modeling approaches (Type 1, Type 2, and Type 4) for perceived value using data from an in‐flight survey. The questionnaire covered topics such as perceived service quality and overall satisfaction, price perception, customer value, and customer retention.

The theoretical discussion repeatedly emphasizes that only the formative modeling of perceived value fits the arguments put forward in the existing literature. This study replicates and extends a study by Lin et al. in the airline service context. The paper reports details about the impact of the proposed seven “get” and “give” components, together with an analysis of the consequences perceived value has on satisfaction, loyalty, and word‐of‐mouth.

The findings suggest extensions and improvements concerning measurement and conceptual issues.

Perceived value shows a substantial effect on behavioral consequences. Service operations must observe the perception of atmospherics emerging from the main service encounters next to considering functional aspects.

Misconceptualizations of multi‐item constructs are well known. However, critical discussions and empirical tests are still scarce in the tourism field. This paper tests and compares different conceptual approaches for perceived value in a service context.

This paper aims to introduce the Schmid–Leiman solution (SLS) as a useful tool to interpret the results of higher-order factor analyses in marketing research irrespective of the type of higher-order factor structure used (formative or reflective).

Two studies, one with retail shoppers in India and another with undergraduate students in Hong Kong, are used to compare different types of higher-order factor structures to test the utility of SLS.

The authors show that whether a reflective or a formative model is used to operationalize a higher-order construct, using SLS as an additional analysis gives useful insights into the factor structure at different levels and helps isolate their unique contributions to the explained variance.

The authors test higher-order models for store environment and consumer impulsiveness with data from retail shoppers and undergraduate students in two Asian countries, which may restrict the generalizability of the study findings. Future research may try to replicate our findings with other higher-order constructs and consumers in other countries.

The authors offer a checklist that can be used by future researchers to evaluate alternate higher-order factor structures and choose the appropriate one for their research context.

The authors show that using SLS is especially useful when there is a lack of clarity on the nature of relationships between the factors at different levels or about the independent contribution of the factors at different levels, in a higher-order factor structure.