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To clarify the nature of the error term in formative measurement models, as it had been misinterpreted in prior research.

The error term in formative measurement models is analytically contrasted with the measurement errors typically found in reflective measurement models.

It is demonstrated that, unlike in reflective measurement, the error term in formative models is not measurement error but rather a disturbance representing non‐modeled causes. It is also shown that, under certain circumstances, the inclusion of an error term is not necessary/appropriate.

Focus is only on first‐order measurement models; higher‐order specifications are not considered.

The paper helps researchers in their initial specification of formative measurement models as well as their evaluation of the subsequent model estimates, leading to better specifications for formative constructs.

While the conceptualization and operationalization of export performance has been receiving increased attention in the literature, practically all multi‐item measures of export performance available are based on reflective (effect) indicators. Explores an alternative measurement approach based on formative (causal) indicators and examines the implications of constructing an index rather than a scale of export performance. The aim is to assist researchers in choosing the appropriate measurement model for their needs when conducting substantive export performance studies.

This paper aims to respond to claims by Collier and Bienstock and Rossiter that reflective measurement is wrong for internet retailing service quality (IRSQ). The research empirically assesses Rossiter's proposal that the C‐OAR‐SE procedure for index development will generate a more valid way to measure IRSQ than is otherwise available.

C‐OAR‐SE is used to develop a formative IRSQ index. The index is administered to internet shoppers in an online survey. The index is compared with an existing IRSQ scale in terms of content, parsimony, measurement scores and criterion validity.

The scale and index display parity in content, parsimony and measurement scores, while the scale shows higher criterion validity. The results contradict Rossiter's claims and foster doubt regarding the usefulness of C‐OAR‐SE's formative measurement procedures.

IRSQ can be conceptualised as reflective or formative, but C‐OAR‐SE does not necessarily generate a better way to measure the construct. Furthermore, implementing C‐OAR‐SE unearths problems with the procedure.

Multiple variations of IRSQ exist, as well as multiple views on how to measure the variations and differing degrees to which the variations are actually measured. Crucially, the situation is not as bleak as Collier and Bienstock or Rossiter suggest: the literature does offer sound, valid IRSQ measurement scales.

The paper resolves unwarranted criticisms of IRSQ scales, highlights the limitations with some scales, offers the first complete example of using C‐OAR‐SE to develop a new index and lends applied support to theoretical criticisms of C‐OAR‐SE.

The purpose of this paper is to test the properties of the well-known three-dimensional adjustment scale, established by Black et al. (1988, 1989), namely, its dimensionality and internal consistency. The theoretical basis of the construct is discussed in relation to formative and reflective measurement approaches.

Two different ways of organizing the adjustment items (random/non-random) were used to assess the internal consistency of the three-dimensional adjustment scale. The quantitative analysis presented is based on survey data from 468 assigned expatriates in Asia that were subjected to an exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis as well as a structural equation modeling – more specifically the multiple indicators multiple causes model (MIMIC).

The study revealed that the adjustment construct is possibly misspecified, especially the general adjustment dimension, that was tested as a formative, not a reflective scale. There is further evidence that the wrong measurement approach skewed the coefficient that connects adjustment to performance, which is the key construct in its nomological network. Moreover, the dimensionality and the internal consistency of the scale are deteriorated to a large extent by randomization of the items. The findings highlight the need for a clear concept definition that would lead to an appropriate operationalization of the construct.

The study is one of the few rigorously testing the properties of a construct that has been used for almost 30 years, thus yielding some novel conclusions about its stability and consistency.

The purpose of this paper is to provide an understanding of the issues related to formative modeling and the implications for its use, including some practical suggestions on methods for utilizing causal indicators within models.

In order to understand and explore the issues relating to formative models, this paper explores both formative and reflective indicators that together address the basic approach to the causal relationship within measurement models in structural equations modeling. Process recommendations for formative model/variable conceptualization and development are presented as well as a discussion of several evaluative issues including identification and proportionality. Some of the main arguments for and against its use are also discussed.

While the literature on formative models stresses its contribution to behavioral sciences, perhaps its greatest contribution is the flexibility of choice that it provides researchers in the development of models to more accurately estimate the relationship under consideration.

The paper contributes to the on-going debate on the relative advantages and disadvantages of the formative and reflective approaches to modeling and examination. Although the pendulum has swung in recent years away from an almost singular focus on reflective models, both approaches provide useful and complementary tools to theoretical management research modeling.

The purpose of this study is to review the use of partial least squares-structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM) in the field of hospitality and tourism and thereby to assess whether the PLS-SEM-based papers followed the recommended application guidelines and to investigate whether a comparison of journal types (hospitality vs tourism) and journal qualities (top-tier vs other leading) reveal significant differences in PLS-SEM use.

A total of 206 PLS-SEM based papers published between 2000 and April 2017 in the 19 SSCI-indexed hospitality and tourism journals were critically analyzed using a wide range of guidelines for the following aspects of PLS-SEM: the rationale of using the method, the data characteristics, the model characteristics, the model assessment and reporting the technical issues.

The results reveal that some aspects of PLS-SEM are correctly applied by researchers, but there are still some misapplications, especially regarding data characteristics, formative measurement model evaluation and structural model assessment. Furthermore, few significant differences were found on the use of PLS-SEM between the two fields (hospitality and tourism) and between the journal tiers (top-tier and other leading).

To enhance the quality of research in hospitality and tourism, the present study provides recommendations for improving the future use of PLS-SEM.

The present study fills a sizeable gap in hospitality and tourism literature and extends the previous assessments on the use of PLS-SEM by providing a wider perspective on the issue (i.e. includes both hospitality and tourism journals rather than the previous reviews that focus on either tourism or hospitality), using a larger sample size of 206 empirical studies, investigating the issue over a longer time period (from 2000 to April, 2017, including the in-press articles), extending the scope of criteria (guidelines) used in the review and comparing the PLS-SEM use between the two allied fields (hospitality and tourism) and between the journal tiers (top-tier and other leading).

This paper aims to discuss the estimation of PLS models with second-order formative constructs as existing research has mainly focused on second-order constructs with a reflective measurement.

Using a model grounded on Roger’s innovation diffusion theory applied to online travel shopping, an empirical application is used to assess and compare the different approaches used to estimate a formative second-order construct. The proposed model examines the innovations characteristics that have an impact on intentions to purchase travel online, using data from a convenience sample of 1,732 responses.

The findings show that all approaches produce similar results regarding the path coefficients, the predictive relevance of the model and the explained variance. The main differences between the approaches are related to the weights of the first-order constructs on the second-order construct and the significance of those weights. Several recommendations are made for researchers on which approach to use.

Since most research has focused on second-order constructs with a reflective measurement and there is limited research with formative second-order constructs, this paper provides a comparison of the different approaches typically used to estimate a formative second-order construct and present useful guidelines for researchers to decide the method to analyse a model with second-order constructs and how to assess formative second-order constructs.

由于现有文章大多数研究反应性结构的二阶模型, 所以本论文讨论以二阶形成性结构的PLS模型。

本论文以罗杰斯的创新扩散模型以基础, 应用其在在线旅游购物行为的研究。通过模型建立和背景研究, 多种预估形成性二阶结构的方法得以比较。建立的模型, 通过1,732份样本采样, 分析了各种对于在线购买旅游产品意图的创新特性。

本论文发现, 各种方法产生相似的分析结果, 比如径路系数、模型预测相关、以及被解释变量等。三种方法的主要区别在于, 第一阶段结构与第二阶段结构的比重值, 还有这些比重值的显著程度。本论文结果对于未来理论采用哪种方法做出启示。

由于大多数研究都集中在以反应性二阶结构分析, 很少的文章研究形成性二阶结构。因此, 本论文全面地比较了三种衡量形成性二阶结构的方法, 并且提供有效建议, 采用哪种方式以分析二阶结构, 以及如何衡量形成性二阶结构。

旅游业、在线旅游购物行为、偏最小二乘回归，二阶形成性结构

研究论文

The purpose of this paper is to test and compare different conceptual approaches for perceived value in a service context.

Perceived value is an outcome construct that results from various benefits received and sacrifices devoted to achieve a particular exchange of a service. The paper compares three different modeling approaches (Type 1, Type 2, and Type 4) for perceived value using data from an in‐flight survey. The questionnaire covered topics such as perceived service quality and overall satisfaction, price perception, customer value, and customer retention.

The theoretical discussion repeatedly emphasizes that only the formative modeling of perceived value fits the arguments put forward in the existing literature. This study replicates and extends a study by Lin et al. in the airline service context. The paper reports details about the impact of the proposed seven “get” and “give” components, together with an analysis of the consequences perceived value has on satisfaction, loyalty, and word‐of‐mouth.

The findings suggest extensions and improvements concerning measurement and conceptual issues.

Perceived value shows a substantial effect on behavioral consequences. Service operations must observe the perception of atmospherics emerging from the main service encounters next to considering functional aspects.

Misconceptualizations of multi‐item constructs are well known. However, critical discussions and empirical tests are still scarce in the tourism field. This paper tests and compares different conceptual approaches for perceived value in a service context.

Customer loyalty is a focal concern for marketers who seek to identify its antecedents and causal structure with the aim of better understanding, predicting and managing loyalty. The purpose of this paper is to model both current behaviour (measured as share of wallet) and future intentions as measures of customer loyalty, to quantify the link between current and future behaviour.

A hybrid model, combining reflective and formative constructs, was developed, moving away from the traditional “reflective only” approach to explain customer loyalty. New predictors such as variety seeking, “resistance to change” and risk taking behaviour were tested to explain loyalty.

While “risk” is traditionally viewed as a key variable in financial services, this study finds that variety seeking and “resistance to change” predicted current behaviour and future behavioural intentions better than risk. Higher explanatory power and better model fit was found for a hybrid model combining formative and reflective constructs; in contrast to the more common fully reflective approach.

This study adds to the emerging debate on whether concepts such as loyalty should be treated as reflective and/or formative. The implications from this study suggest that future research can usefully model current behaviour as formative and future intentions as reflective. Future research should test the extent that these findings apply across products and services beyond banking.

This study establishes that variety seeking and “resistance to change” can usefully explain and predict loyalty. The examination of “formative” and “reflective” concepts in explaining loyalty is also novel.

This study aims to fill this paucity of knowledge by exploring and formulating a formative index to measure the up-to-date quality of online food delivery (DEQUAL). The quality measurements for online food delivery have not been well recognized and even little is known after the COVID-19 outbreak. This study fills this paucity of knowledge by exploring and formulating a formative index to measure the up-to-date quality of online food delivery (DEQUAL).

Owing to the explorative nature and the lack of developed quality theory under the unprecedented COVID-19 pandemic, DEQUAL is conceptualized as a formative construct. This study adopts a mixed-method approach including expert interviews and online surveys to ascertain the underlying structure of DEQUAL.

Using partial least squares structural equation modeling as the analytical method, the results support that DEQUAL is a formative construct with 32 indicators. This study provides a measurement index with robust psychometric properties to assist practitioners in evaluating DEQUAL.

This study contributes a theoretical and empirical-based conceptualization of DEQUAL as a multi-dimensional construct. Supplementing the past studies which commonly applied the reflective approach, this study evinces that the formative approach is also appropriate and thence furnishes the relevance of the formative index in the service management theories.

Practitioners are suggested to apply the validated indicators for service audit and customer relationship management. By systematically monitoring and measuring the online food delivery service quality, restaurants can improve customer satisfaction and loyalty.

This study offers various insights to the service quality literature in the food delivery service context.