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Article
Publication date: 6 July 2020

Johanna J. Schwartz, Joshua Hamel, Thomas Ekstrom, Leticia Ndagang and Andrew J. Boydston

Additive manufacturing (AM) methods such as material extrusion (ME) are becoming widely used by engineers, designers and hobbyists alike for a wide variety of applications…

Abstract

Purpose

Additive manufacturing (AM) methods such as material extrusion (ME) are becoming widely used by engineers, designers and hobbyists alike for a wide variety of applications. Successfully manufacturing objects using ME three-dimensional printers can often require numerous iterations to attain predictable performance because the exact mechanical behavior of parts fabricated via additive processes are difficult to predict. One of that factors that contributes to this difficulty is the wide variety of ME feed stock materials currently available in the marketplace. These build materials are often sold based on their base polymer material such as acrylonitrile butadiene styrene or polylactic acid (PLA), but are produced by numerous different commercial suppliers in a wide variety of colors using typically undisclosed additive feed stocks and base polymer formulations. This paper aims to present the results from an experimental study concerned with quantifying how these sources of polymer variability can affect the mechanical behavior of three-dimensional printed objects. Specifically, the set of experiments conducted in this study focused on following: several different colors of PLA filament from a single commercial supplier to explore the effect of color additives and three filaments of the same color but produced by three different suppliers to account for potential variations in polymer formulation.

Design/methodology/approach

A set of five common mechanical and material characterization tests were performed on 11 commercially available PLA filaments in an effort to gain insight into the variations in mechanical response that stem from variances in filament manufacturer, feed stock polymer, additives and processing. Three black PLA filaments were purchased from three different commercial suppliers to consider the variations introduced by use of different feed stock polymers and filament processing by different manufacturers. An additional eight PLA filaments in varying colors were purchased from one of the three suppliers to focus on how color additives lead to property variations. Some tests were performed on unprocessed filament samples, while others were performed on objects three-dimensional printed from the various filaments. This study looked specifically at four mechanical properties (Young’s modulus, storage modulus, yield strength and toughness) as a function of numerous material properties (e.g. additive loading, molecular weight, molecular weight dispersity, enthalpy of melting and crystallinity).

Findings

For the 11 filaments tested the following mean values and standard deviations were observed for the material properties considered: pa = 1.3 ± 0.9% (percent additives), Mw = 98.6 ± 16.4 kDa (molecular weight), Ð = 1.33 ± 0.1 (molecular weight dispersity), Hm = 37.4 ± 7.2 J/g (enthalpy of melting) and = 19.6 ± 2.1% (crystallinity). The corresponding mean values and standard deviations for the resulting mechanical behaviors were: E = 2,790 ± 145 MPa (Young’s modulus), E’ = 1,050 ± 125 MPa (storage modulus), Sy = 49.6 ± 4.93 MPa (yield strength) and Ut = 1.87 ± 0.354 MJ/m^3 (toughness). These variations were observed in filaments that were all manufactured from the same base polymer (e.g. PLA) and are only different in terms of the additives used by the manufacturers to produce different colors or different three-dimensional printing performance. Unfortunately, while the observed variations were significant, no definitive strong correlations were found between these observed variations in the mechanical behavior of the filaments studied and the considered material properties.

Research limitations/implications

These variations in mechanical behavior and material properties could not be ascribed to any specific factor, but rather show that the mechanical of three-dimensional printed parts are potentially affected by variations in base polymer properties, additive usage and filament processing choices in complex ways that can be difficult to predict.

Practical implications

These results emphasize the need to take processing and thereby even filament color, into account when using ME printers, they emphasize the need for designers to use AM with caution when the mechanical behavior of a printed part is critical and they highlight the need for continued research in this important area. While all filaments used were marked as PLA, the feedstock materials, additives and processing conditions created significant differences in the mechanical behavior of the printed objects evaluated, but these differences could not be accurately and reliably predicted as function of the observed material properties that were the focus of this study.

Originality/value

The testing methods used in the study can be used by engineers and creators alike to better analyze the material properties of their filament printed objects, to increase success in print and mechanical design. Furthermore, the results clearly show that as AM continues to evolve and grow as a manufacturing method, standardization of feedstock processing conditions and additives would enable more reliable and repeatable printed objects and would better assist designers in effectively implementing AM methods.

Details

Rapid Prototyping Journal, vol. 26 no. 7
Type: Research Article
ISSN: 1355-2546

Keywords

Article
Publication date: 21 March 2016

Kamaljit Singh Boparai, Rupinder Singh and Harwinder Singh

The purpose of this paper is to fabricate Nylon6-Al-Al2O3-based alternative fused deposition modeling process (FDM) feedstock filament in place of commercial acrylonitrile…

Abstract

Purpose

The purpose of this paper is to fabricate Nylon6-Al-Al2O3-based alternative fused deposition modeling process (FDM) feedstock filament in place of commercial acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) filament (having required rheological and mechanical properties) for rapid manufacturing (RM) and rapid tooling (RT) applications. The detailed steps for fabrication of alternative FDM feedstock filament (as per field application) with relatively low manufacturing cost and tailor-made properties have been highlighted.

Design/methodology/approach

The rheological and mechanical suitability of nylon6-Al-Al2O3 feedstock filament has been investigated experimentally. The approach is to predict and incorporate essential properties such as flow rate, flexibility, stiffness and mechanical strength at processing conditions and compared with commercial ABS material. The proportions of various constituents have been varied to modify and improve rheological behavior and mechanical properties of alternative FDM feedstock filament.

Findings

The alternative material of feed stock filament was successfully developed and loaded in commercial FDM setup without changing any hardware and software. The result of study suggests that the newly developed composite material filament has relatively poor mechanical properties but have highly thermal stability and wear resistant as compared to ABS filament and hence can be used for tailor-made applications.

Research limitations/implications

In this work, no additive was added for improving the bond formation of metal and polymeric materials. The newly developed filament was prepared on single screw extruder. For more uniform mixing of metal and polymeric materials, further studies may be conducted on twin screw extruder. Also, for the present research work, the testing of newly developed filament has been limited up to mechanical testing, which may be extended to chemical and thermal analysis to understand thermal stability and degradation mechanism of newly developed composite material.

Practical implications

The proportion of filler material (Al-Al2O3) in Nylon6 matrix was set as a constraint, which was adjusted based upon melt flow index of original equipment manufacturer developed material (ABS), and temperature conditions were available at FDM nozzle (so that hardware and software system of commercial FDM setup need not to be altered).

Originality/value

The present approach outlined selection, processing, fabrication and testing procedure for alternate feedstock filament, which fulfills the necessary requirements of FDM process and has been customized for RT and RM applications. This work highlights mechanical strength evaluation of feedstock filament (which is necessary before the loading of material in FDM system). The potential applications of this investigation include RM of functional parts, tailor-made grinding tools for dentists and RT of metal matrix composite having complex geometry.

Details

Rapid Prototyping Journal, vol. 22 no. 2
Type: Research Article
ISSN: 1355-2546

Keywords

Article
Publication date: 12 October 2018

Rupinder Singh, Ranvijay Kumar and IPS Ahuja

This study aims to highlights the mechanical, thermal and melting behavior compatibility of aluminum (Al)-reinforced polyamide (PA) 6/acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS)-based…

Abstract

Purpose

This study aims to highlights the mechanical, thermal and melting behavior compatibility of aluminum (Al)-reinforced polyamide (PA) 6/acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS)-based functional prototypes prepared using fused deposition modeling (FDM) from the friction welding point of view. Previous studies have highlighted the use of metallic/non-metallic fillers in polymer matrix for preparations of mechanically improved FDM feedstock filaments and functional prototypes. But hitherto, very less has been reported on fabrication of functional prototypes which fulfill the compatibility of two polymers for joining/welding-based applications. The compatibility of two dissimilar polymers enables the friction welding for maintenance applications.

Design/methodology/approach

The twin screw extrusion process has been used for mechanical mixing of metallic reinforcement in polymer matrix, and final blend of reinforced polymers in the form of extruded feed stock filament has been used on FDM for printing of functional prototypes (for friction welding). The methodology involves melt flow index (MFI) investigations, differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) investigations for thermal properties, tensile and hardness testing for mechanical properties and photo micrographic investigations for metallurgical properties on extruded samples.

Findings

It was observed that the reinforced ABS and PA6 polymers have better compatibility in the terms of similar melt flow, thermal properties and can lead to the better joint efficiency with friction welding.

Originality/value

In the present work composite feed stock filament composed of ABS and PA6 with reinforcement of Al powder has been successfully developed for preparation of functional prototype in friction welding applications.

Details

Rapid Prototyping Journal, vol. 24 no. 9
Type: Research Article
ISSN: 1355-2546

Keywords

Article
Publication date: 21 March 2016

Kamaljit Singh Boparai, Rupinder Singh and Harwinder Singh

In this study the friction and wear behavior of fused deposition modeling (FDM) parts fabricated with composite material and acrylonitrile butadienestyrene (ABS) material…

1753

Abstract

Purpose

In this study the friction and wear behavior of fused deposition modeling (FDM) parts fabricated with composite material and acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) material feedstock filament were realized and compared under dry sliding conditions.

Design/methodology/approach

The tests were performed by applying the load of 5, 10, 15 and 20 N with sliding velocity of 0.63 m/s for the duration of 5 and 10 min at room temperature.

Findings

The results highlight various wear mechanisms such as adhesion, abrasion and fatigue during the investigation. It was observed that the wear volume, friction force, friction co-efficient and temperature were sensitive to the applied load and time duration. The composite material showed a remarkable improvement in wear properties as compared to the ABS material.

Research limitations/implications

The investigations reported in the present research work is based on comparative analysis (of composite material and ABS material feedstock filament). The results may be different in practical applications because of different operating conditions.

Practical implications

The parts fabricated with proposed composite material feedstock filament are highly wear resistant than basic ABS filament. This may lead to the development of better wear resistance components for numerous field applications.

Originality/value

The potential of this research work is to fabricate FDM parts with composite material feedstock filament to cater need of wear resistant industrial components.

Details

Rapid Prototyping Journal, vol. 22 no. 2
Type: Research Article
ISSN: 1355-2546

Keywords

Article
Publication date: 21 March 2016

Kamaljit Singh Boparai, Rupinder Singh and Harwinder Singh

The purpose of this study is to highlight the direct fabrication of rapid tooling (RT) with desired mechanical, tribological and thermal properties using fused deposition…

3630

Abstract

Purpose

The purpose of this study is to highlight the direct fabrication of rapid tooling (RT) with desired mechanical, tribological and thermal properties using fused deposition modelling (FDM) process. Further, the review paper demonstrated development procedure of alternative feedstock filament of low-cost composite material for FDM to extend the range of RT applications.

Design/methodology/approach

The alternative materials for FDM and their processing requirements for fabrication in filament form as reported by various researchers have been summarized. The literature demonstrates the role of various post-processing techniques on surface finish of FDM prints. Further, low-cost materials for feedstock filament have been investigated experimentally to check their adaptability/suitability for commercial FDM setup. The approach was to realize the requirements of FDM (melt flow rate, flexibility, stiffness, glass transition temperature and mechanical strength), necessary for the successful run of an alternative filament. The effect of constituents (additives, plasticizers, surfactants and fillers) in polymeric matrix on mechanical, tribological and thermal properties has been investigated.

Findings

It is possible to develop composite material feedstock as filament for commercial FDM setup without changing its hardware and software. Surface finish of the parts can further be improved by applying various post-processing techniques. Most of the composite parts have high mechanical strength, hardness, thermal stability, wear resistant and better bond formation than standard material parts.

Research limitations/implications

Future research may be focused on improving the surface quality of parts fabricated with composite feedstock, solving issues related to the uniform distribution of filled materials during the fabrication of feedstock filament which in turns further increases mechanical strength, high dimensional stability of composite filament and transferring the technology from laboratory scale to various industrial applications.

Practical implications

Potential applications of direct fabrication with RT includes rapid manufacturing (RM) of metal-filled parts and ceramic-filled parts (which have complex shape and cannot be rapidly made by any other manufacturing techniques) in the field of biomedical and dentistry.

Originality/value

This new manufacturing methodology is based on the proper selection and processing of various materials and additives to form high-performance, low-cost composite material feedstock filament (which fulfil the necessary requirements of FDM process). Finally, newly developed feedstock filament material has both quantitative and qualitative advantage in RT and RM applications as compared to standard material filament.

Details

Rapid Prototyping Journal, vol. 22 no. 2
Type: Research Article
ISSN: 1355-2546

Keywords

Article
Publication date: 18 January 2016

Sunpreet Singh and Rupinder Singh

This paper aims to review the industrial and biomedical applications of state-of-the-art fused deposition modelling (FDM)-assisted investment casting (FDMAIC). Brief literature…

1291

Abstract

Purpose

This paper aims to review the industrial and biomedical applications of state-of-the-art fused deposition modelling (FDM)-assisted investment casting (FDMAIC). Brief literature survey of methodologies, ideas, techniques and approaches used by various researchers is highlighted and use of hybrid feedstock filament-based pattern to produce metal matrix composite is duly discussed.

Design/methodology/approach

Pattern replica required for investment casting (IC) of biomedical implant, machine parts, dentistry and other industrial components can be directly produced by using FDM process is presented. Relevant studies and examples explaining the suitability of FDMAIC for various applications are also presented.

Findings

Researches to optimize the conventional IC with FDM solutions and develop new hybrid feedstock filament of FDM done by researchers worldwide are also discussed. The review highlights the benefit of FDMAIC to surgeons, engineers and manufacturing organizations.

Research limitations/implications

The research related to this survey is limited to the suitability and applicability of FDMAIC.

Originality/value

This review presents the information regarding potential IC application, which facilitates the society, engineers and manufacturing organizations by providing variety of components for assisting FDM. The information reported in this paper will serve doctors, researchers, organizations and academicians to explore the new options in the field of FDMAIC.

Details

Rapid Prototyping Journal, vol. 22 no. 1
Type: Research Article
ISSN: 1355-2546

Keywords

Article
Publication date: 6 April 2021

Kapil Chawla, Rupinder Singh and Jaspreet Singh

The thermoplastic polymers do not decompose easily due to the presence of long-chain stable polymeric structure, and thus, causes serious effects on the environment. Recycling of…

Abstract

Purpose

The thermoplastic polymers do not decompose easily due to the presence of long-chain stable polymeric structure, and thus, causes serious effects on the environment. Recycling of these polymer wastes becomes the only solution to minimize their adverse effects on the environment. The purpose of this study was to explore the feasibility of using recycled thermoplastic material as filament for fused deposition modeling technique.

Design/methodology/approach

In this study, the researchers fabricated fused filaments (in-house) for fused deposition modeling (FDM) technique of additive manufacturing from secondary recycled acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) by using a twin-screw extruder. After measuring the melt flow index of the secondary recycled ABS, the twin-screw extrusion parameters (rpm/speed of the screw, extrusion temperature and load) were varied to predict their influence on the various properties (rheological/mechanical/thermal) of the fabricated filaments. Experimental work was executed as per Taguchi’s L9 orthogonal array.

Findings

Thermal analysis performed to estimate the heat carrying capacity of recycled ABS highlighted that the heat capacity of ABS increases significantly from 0.28 J/g to 3.94 J/g during the heating cycle. The maximum value of peak strength and percentage break elongation for the fused filaments was investigated at 12.5 kg load, 2,250 C extrusion temperature and 70 rpm speed.

Originality/value

The filaments fabricated by recycling the polymeric waste has been successfully used in the FDM machine for the preparation of the three-dimensional printed tensile specimen.

Details

World Journal of Engineering, vol. 19 no. 3
Type: Research Article
ISSN: 1708-5284

Keywords

Article
Publication date: 11 September 2019

Swapnil Vyavahare, Soham Teraiya, Deepak Panghal and Shailendra Kumar

Fused deposition modelling (FDM) is the most economical additive manufacturing technique. The purpose of this paper is to describe a detailed review of this technique. Total 211…

3608

Abstract

Purpose

Fused deposition modelling (FDM) is the most economical additive manufacturing technique. The purpose of this paper is to describe a detailed review of this technique. Total 211 research papers published during the past 26 years, that is, from the year 1994 to 2019 are critically reviewed. Based on the literature review, research gaps are identified and the scope for future work is discussed.

Design/methodology/approach

Literature review in the domain of FDM is categorized into five sections – (i) process parameter optimization, (ii) environmental factors affecting the quality of printed parts, (iii) post-production finishing techniques to improve quality of parts, (iv) numerical simulation of process and (iv) recent advances in FDM. Summary of major research work in FDM is presented in tabular form.

Findings

Based on literature review, research gaps are identified and scope of future work in FDM along with roadmap is discussed.

Research limitations/implications

In the present paper, literature related to chemical, electric and magnetic properties of FDM parts made up of various filament feedstock materials is not reviewed.

Originality/value

This is a comprehensive literature review in the domain of FDM focused on identifying the direction for future work to enhance the acceptability of FDM printed parts in industries.

Details

Rapid Prototyping Journal, vol. 26 no. 1
Type: Research Article
ISSN: 1355-2546

Keywords

Article
Publication date: 18 October 2018

Sunpreet Singh, Narinder Singh, Munish Gupta, Chander Prakash and Rupinder Singh

The purpose of this paper is to fabricate acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene (ABS)/high impact polystyrene (HIPS) based multi-material geometries using a low cost polymer printer. At…

477

Abstract

Purpose

The purpose of this paper is to fabricate acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene (ABS)/high impact polystyrene (HIPS) based multi-material geometries using a low cost polymer printer. At the same time, efforts have been made to investigate the mechanical characteristics of the obtained prints and to perform the optimization using the Taguchi-Grey (TGRA) method.

Design/methodology/approach

Initially, the feedstock materials were in-house fabricated in the form of filament wires, workable with fused filament fabrication (FFF) technique, of 1.75 ± 0.1 mm diameter by using a single screw extruder. Multi-material structures were fabricated using variable parameters (such as: raster angles, layer height, fill density and solid layers) and the experimentation was conducted as per Taguchi L18 array. Mechanical responses obtained by performing tensile, impact and bending test were studied in response to input variables and ultimately optimized settings were obtained, for individual as well as multiple parameters). Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) analysis was performed to analyze the fractured surfaces.

Findings

The Signal/Noise (S/N) plots for the quality characteristics highlighted that selected input parameters significantly influenced the obtained values for tensile strength, impact strength and flexural strength. Micrographs of the fractured specimens showed the occurrence of brittle fracture with higher levels of perimeter, infill density and solid layers. The extent of delamination was also increased under the bending load and further increased by increasing solid layers.

Practical implications

The results of the study strongly advocated the utility of fabricated multi-materials structures in automotive, aerospace and other manufacturing industries.

Originality/value

This work represents the fabrication, testing and analysis of polymer-based multi-material structures for engineering applications.

Details

Rapid Prototyping Journal, vol. 25 no. 1
Type: Research Article
ISSN: 1355-2546

Keywords

Article
Publication date: 3 January 2023

Mohammad Saleh Afsharkohan, Saman Dehrooyeh, Majid Sohrabian and Majid Vaseghi

Fabrication settings such as printing speed and nozzle temperature in fused deposition modeling undeniably influence the quality and strength of fabricated parts. As available…

Abstract

Purpose

Fabrication settings such as printing speed and nozzle temperature in fused deposition modeling undeniably influence the quality and strength of fabricated parts. As available market filaments do not contain any exact information report for printing settings, manufacturers are incapable of achieving desirable predefined print accuracy and mechanical properties for the final parts. The purpose of this study is to determine the importance of selecting suitable print parameters by understanding the intrinsic behavior of the material to achieve high-performance parts.

Design/methodology/approach

Two common commercial polylactic acid filaments were selected as the investigated samples. To study the specimens’ printing quality, an appropriate scaffold geometry as a delicate printing sample was printed according to a variety of speeds and nozzle temperatures, selected in the filament manufacturer’s proposed temperature range. Dimensional accuracy and qualitative surface roughness of the specimens made by one of the filaments were evaluated and the best processing parameters were selected. The scaffolds were fabricated again by both filaments according to the selected proper processing parameters. Material characterization tests were accomplished to study the reason for different filament behaviors in the printing process. Moreover, the correlations between the polymer structure, thermo-rheological behavior and printing parameters were denoted.

Findings

Compression tests revealed that precise printing of the characterized filament results in more accurate structure and subsequent improvement of the final printed sample elastic modulus.

Originality/value

The importance of material characterization to achieve desired properties for any purpose was emphasized. Obtained results from the rheological characterizations would help other users to benefit from the highest performance of their specific filament.

Details

Rapid Prototyping Journal, vol. 29 no. 4
Type: Research Article
ISSN: 1355-2546

Keywords

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