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One of the most visible discussion points around international level, professional women's football in recent years has been that of gender equitable payment of players. This chapter presents some of the cornerstones of the equal pay debates at play in women's football. First, the emergence of international women's football as a major force in the global sport nexus is highlighted, which has enabled women to be paid to play football as a profession. Second, the historical roots of equal pay debates are presented, before turning to the most public and high-profile remuneration dispute in the sport of football, that of the USWNT versus the United States Soccer Federation (USSF). In this chapter, we outline how the drawn-out legal process has undoubtedly contributed to greater pay parity on the international stage for many professional women footballers and conclude the chapter by offering our thoughts as to the significance, and future, of gendered pay debates in football.

This chapter reviews work that examines the potential causes of inequality for women in employment in the UK. Amongst developed economies and based on mean hourly earnings, the UK has one of the highest gender pay gaps (ILO, 2018). The UK, therefore, illustrates some of the key theoretical and practical issues associated with greater gender equality that affect other countries to varying degrees. This chapter sets out key theoretical perspectives on gender inequality, summarizes important research, identifies research gaps and provides an agenda for future research. It highlights how there is no simple explanation for the disparities in pay between men and women; these disparities persist in the UK and elsewhere. Theories and empirical analyses, therefore, need to expand to identify other potential causes of gender inequality, extending ‘upwards’ to examine how the nature of firms varies across countries and ‘downwards’ to assess how union representatives influence equal opportunity policies in organizations.

This chapter examines regulatory experimentation in relation to gender equality and the gender pay and representation gaps. The corporate sector has long promoted a voluntarist ‘business case’ for equality as part of their wider agenda to promote CSR, an approach that fits within the second web of rules. However, slow progress prompted governments to introduce proactive legislative measures such as gender pay gap reporting and gender quotas. At the same time, the traditional web of joint regulation continues to be relevant with trade unions using equal pay litigation to challenge the historical undervaluation of work by low-paid women and negotiate new collective pay structures to deliver tangible benefits to low-paid women. Union litigation in the UK local authority sector and the New Zealand care sector are compared. The chapter argues that the three webs are more usefully understood as complements rather than substitutes.

The British North American colonies were the first western economies to rely on legislature-issued paper monies as an important internal media of exchange. This system arose piecemeal. In the absence of banks and treasuries that exchanged paper monies at face value for specie monies on demand, colonial governments experimented with other ways to anchor their paper monies to real values in the economy. These mechanisms included tax-redemption, land-backed loans, sinking funds, interest-bearing notes, and legal tender laws. I assess and explain the structure and performance of these mechanisms. This was monetary experimentation on a grand scale.

We report three findings in a comprehensive study of hourly wage differences between women and men working in same occupation and establishment in Sweden in 1970–1990. (1) Within same occupation and establishment in 1990, women on average earn 1.4% less than men among blue-collar workers, 5.0% less among white-collar employees. This occupation-establishment level wage gap declined strongly from 1970 to 1978. (2) For white-collar employees, occupational segregation accounts for much of the wage gap, establishment segregation for little. For blue-collar workers both types of segregation are important. (3) The within-occupation gaps are small, below 4% and 7% for blue- and white-collar workers.

The relevant basic principle for overall distribution in macrojustice turns out to be the relevant equality of liberties. This study shows the consequence of this fact for the optimum distribution, taxation, and transfers of income. The liberties in question are social liberty (freedom from forceful interference, basic rights), and the possibilities offered by domains of choice which can provide equal liberty while being different for individuals with different productivities.

The method is deductive from the basic relevant concepts.

The result is that this distribution consists of an equal sharing of the proceeds of the same labour for all individuals (with their different productivities). The individuals choose freely their total labour (with no other tax). This redistributive structure is Equal-Labour Income Equalization or ELIE. It also has a number of other important meanings, such as: general balanced labour reciprocity (each yields to each other the proceeds of the same labour); equal basic universal income financed by an equal labour of all; and uniform linear concentration to the mean of the distribution of total incomes (including the value of leisure).

This result extends to multidimensional labour (duration, education, intensity, etc.), and to partial labour including unemployments.

The practical application relies on exemption of overtime labour from the income tax, and a tax credit. This is successfully applied in some countries.

This constitutes a new paradigm of optimum income distribution and taxation. The old paradigm was based on welfarism not found relevant by society for this application, and it has therefore never been applied.

In this chapter I provide a sociological discussion of the gender pay gap legalisation by drawing on data in the sport sector across public and private commercial sports organisations. The gender pay gap is a significant reporting tool as it refers to the difference in the average hourly wage of all men compared to all women across an organisation (gov.uk, 2020). It is part of legislation introduced in the UK in 2017 which requires all employers with 250 or more employees to calculate and publish annually their gender pay gap data (gov.uk, 2020). The patterns emerging from the data indicate that the highest disparity in gender pay remains in those organisations where professional sport is commercialised around male performance (average gender pay gap is 59.1% in 2018–2019). In this chapter I draw on figurational concepts of power that enable the analysis of gender relations processually and draw on the role of shame and embarrassment to discuss the ways in which gender pay gap reporting may be used as a power resource to challenge ongoing inequalities in sport governance.

Love and force are thought of as the ultimate antithesis in human relations; the substitution of love for force is the utopian dream, the consummation devoutly to be wished but hardly hoped for, the far-off divine event to which the whole creation moves – perhaps – slowly if at all. It may therefore seem perverse to raise a question as to whether there is any fundamental or real difference between love and force. Yet consideration of that question will show that from a scientific, logical point of view, love is equivalent to force in human relations, and is in fact but a variety of force. It will show too, that force in the world in general, to be given any meaning at all, has to be regarded as a kind of love, as Empedocles contended long ago. This is no mere speculation or word-play; the point is of the most fundamental and practical significance in the field of social science, regarded as a project for improving the quality of social life.