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The purpose of this study is to investigate consumers’ subconscious/emotional responses to brand tarnishment.

Brand tarnishment and the responses of business firms in protecting their brands against economic harm have been controversial topics for many years. Unfortunately, those who have resorted to the courts to protect their brands have met with mixed success, mainly because the methodologies used to demonstrate economic harm have proved controversial. One caveat in the history of court cases is the absence of any investigation related to emotional responses to brand dilution in general, and to brand tarnishment in particular. This is so, despite several calls to investigate this relationship.

It is concluded that the brand tarnishment of fairly well-known brands is largely ineffectual (neutral emotional responses).

The primary contribution of this study is that, for the first time, some light is shed on consumers’ emotional responses to brand tarnishment. Irrespective of the neurophysiological measure used, the results consistently demonstrate that the subconscious responses to brand tarnishment are generally neutral. The results thus do not suggest any likelihood of severe economic harm due to negative emotional responses to brand tarnishment.

The results of this study have important managerial implications for brand managers, and particularly for those responsible for relatively well-established brands. It is clear that at the unconscious level, brand tarnishment is not as harmful as many seem to believe. There is evidence that brands will not be harmed if the “tarnishment” consists of social commentary.

It could also suggest that consumers can differentiate between different forms of tarnishment, and that tarnishment involving social commentary is not frowned upon. This may be because the consumer agrees with the social commentary, or finds it amusing. In short, it seems that consumers may see the tarnishment as mildly amusing, but realize that it is not of a serious nature.

The results seem to suggest that legal action against those who tarnish brands is unnecessary and probably ineffective. Instead, this study proposes more innovative ways to respond to brand tarnishment.

We review the literature on stress in organizational settings and, based on a model of job insecurity and emotional intelligence by Jordan, Ashkanasy and Härtel (2002), present a new model where affective responses associated with stress mediate the impact of workplace stressors on individual and organizational performance outcomes. Consistent with Jordan et al., emotional intelligence is a key moderating variable. In our model, however, the components of emotional intelligence are incorporated into the process of stress appraisal and coping. The chapter concludes with a discussion of the implications of these theoretical developments for understanding emotional and behavioral responses to workplace.

Guided by the Stimulus-Organism-Response (S-O-R) model, this study aimed to investigate direct and indirect effects of apparel store environmental characteristics and consumers' positive emotional responses to the environment on impulse buying behavior. Also, this study sought to examine how situational variables interact with consumers' positive emotional responses in influencing impulse buying behavior.

Survey data were collected using a store intercept method from 118 female consumers of an outdoor retail store in the western region of the USA.

The study found direct effects of ambient/design characteristics on consumers' positive emotional responses and direct effects of consumers' positive emotional responses to the retail environment on impulse buying behavior. Money availability and task definition moderated the relationship between consumers' positive emotional responses and impulse buying behavior.

The conceptualization of a theoretical framework of impulse buying behavior for apparel resulted from this study.

Managing appealing store design characteristics may increase consumers' positive emotions and impulse purchases. Displays designed to attract impulse purchasers should target browsers without restricted budgets.

This study expands the application of the S-O-R model in the context of apparel by including situational factors as moderating variables.

The purpose of this paper is to study the service responses of service providers to the affective states of business clients and to test whether they have a positive effect on the client's job performance, as well as their satisfaction and bonding to the service provider.

The results are based on a survey of 240 business travellers in Taiwan. Ordinary least square regression is applied to test the relationships.

Statistical tests confirm that service responses to emotional states have a positive effect on customer satisfaction, job performance and bonding. While service responses aimed at easing customers’ emotional problems increase satisfaction and job performance, true bonding is only facilitated through service responses that are centred on affection and social‐emotional support.

The authors investigate the personal service encounter with business customers who are using the service to perform a task. The findings are applicable to services that deal with customers in a similar way.

The paper shows that appropriate service responses to emotional states of customers, including business customers, can lead to higher satisfaction and bonding to the service provider. Service responses enable business customers to perform better.

The authors apply the concept of pre‐consumption emotions of customers to business clients. While pre‐consumption emotional states of customers have been studied much less that the elicitation of customer emotions, in the business‐to‐business sector emotions are seldom addressed. However, the study demonstrates that emotions are an important input factor that clients bring into the service encounter, which service providers can deal with to their competitive advantage.

Research in industrial and organizational psychology demonstrates that the regulation of negative emotions in response to both organizational stressors and interpersonal workplace interactions can result in functional and dysfunctional outcomes (Côté, 2005; Diefendorff, Richard, & Yang, 2008). Research on the regulation of negative emotions has additionally been conducted in social psychology, developmental psychology, neuropsychology, health psychology, and clinical psychology. A close reading of this broader literature, however, reveals that the conceptualization and use of the term “emotion regulation” varies within each research field as well as across these fields. The main focus of our chapter is to make sense of the term “emotion regulation” in the workplace by considering its use across a broad range of psychology disciplines. We then develop an overarching theoretical framework using disambiguating terminology to highlight what we argue are the important constructs involved in the process of intrapersonal emotion generation, emotional experience regulation, and emotional expression regulation in the workplace (e.g., emotional intelligence, emotion regulation strategies, emotion expression displays). We anticipate this chapter will enable researchers and industrial and organizational psychologists to identify the conditions under which functional regulation outcomes are more likely to occur and then build interventions around these findings.

Using the broaden-and-build theory, this study aims to examine whether (1) employees have hateful emotional responses and think the overall performance review is fair at different levels of managers’ emotional flexibility; and (2) the difference in employees’ hateful emotional responses mediates the relationship between managers’ emotional flexibility and employees’ perceptions of performance review fairness across flexibility conditions.

A sample of 110 Pakistani undergraduates participated in the seven waves of online scenario-based experimental research. For a one-way repeated-measures analysis, the general linear model was used, and for a two-condition within-subject mediational path analysis, the mediation and moderation analysis for repeated measures (MEMORE) was used.

Employees experience a high level of performance review justice and a low level of hateful emotional responses when managers are more emotionally flexible during the meeting, and vice versa. A manager’s emotional flexibility may also prevent employees from responding hatefully during performance reviews, which in turn makes them perceive the overall performance review as just.

The study expands on the thought–action repertoire and personal resources, supporting the broaden-and-build theory. The research applies this notion to performance reviews, which are an emotional experience for managers and employees. The study timely addresses organizations’ need for performance management system overhauls by suggesting managers to use emotional flexibility until an alternate performance review system is available.

This applied neuroscience study aims to understand how direct and unconscious emotional and cognitive responses underlie travel destination preferences. State-of-the-art neuroscience tools and methods were used, including stationary eye tracking and brain scanning electroencephalography (EEG) to assess emotional and cognitive responses to destination images and assets. To the researchers’ knowledge, this study is the first applied neuroscience study in tourism research and thus opens a new path of research and enquiry to this area. This paper is an attempt to understand specific mental processes in human tourism behaviours, and it is suggest that unconscious emotional and cognitive responses are natural processes that need to be studied and understood, not as special cases, but embedded as natural parts of tourism research.

To better understand consumers’ unconscious responses to possible travel destinations, a 3 × 5 factorial design was run with the factors being stimulus type (images, printed names and videos) and travel destination (Dubai, Abu Dhabi, Hong Kong, New York and London). Eye-tracking calibration was done with a nine-point fixation test and the EEG calibration was done using functional localizer tests based on the ABM B-ALERT calibration process. This calibration procedure allows reliable tracking of emotional and cognitive responses over time. Thirty Emirati (nationals of the UAE) participants, consisting of equal numbers of males and females (15) were recruited from the UAE and signed informed consent. Each participant was positioned in front of an eye tracker and computer screen, and brain-scanning equipment was mounted; then, each participant underwent eye-tracking and neuroimaging calibration procedures. A Tobii T60XL eye tracker and an ABM X-10 EEG brain scanner, both running iMotions v5.1 in a Windows 7 environment, were used.

General emotional and cognitive differences were identified between the channels through which travel destinations are presented. Words about and names of travel destinations cause higher cognitive loads, which may not be surprising, given the greater associative load that words have than images. Of particular interest is the hypothesis that images evoke stronger affective responses than verbal representations. However, as previously noted (Holmes and Mathews, 2005), empirical evidence for this assumption seems surprisingly sparse. The present study and the context provided here suggest that decisions on travel destination have an unconscious component and a direct component that may drive or affect overt preference and actual choice.

The limitations of this paper is that first, neuromarketing is not dependent on sample sizes; however, future studies could build on this paper to understand why there is a preference for cities. It is suggested that unconscious emotional and cognitive responses are natural processes that need to be studied and understood, not as special cases, but embedded as natural parts of tourism research.

Thus, tourism research may indeed be a suitable field for understanding the brain bases of complex preference formation and choice. Various researchers have found that a destination image is typically measured using cognitive, affective and behavioural components, and further stated that the cognitive image component of a destination was found to have a significant positive effect on the affective image component and overall destination image (Stylidis et al., 2017). Therefore, this research which has introduced brain scanning can be used to better understand the underlying unconscious emotional and cognitive processes that affect consumer thought and action. An understanding of what goes on in the human unconscious mind is very important for destination marketers, this can help in the integrated marketing communication process to create a destination image and brand.

This study examines whether a unique set of emotions may be generated by advertisements for apparel products and brands for a young female target audience. Also studied were the effects of emotions on evaluative perceptions of apparel brand advertisements (ad attitude). Test advertisements consisted of 90 advertisements representing 56 different brands. Using an aggregate‐level communication model, all analysis in the study was performed across advertisements, not across people, as sampling units of interest. Findings show a unique set of three emotional dimensions generated by the apparel brand advertisements. Two emotional dimensions, pleasure/activation (eg activation, bored, desired, social affection) and hypoactivation (drowsy, restful, soothed), had a positive influence on ad attitude. The third dimension, domination (anger, fear, irritation, tension), did not have a significant effect on ad attitude, having neither good nor bad effect on evaluations of advertisements.

The purpose of this paper is twofold: first, to analyze whether musical priming induces greater recall of brands and, second, to study the emotional priming effects of music, in comparison with non-emotional music, including gender comparison.

Through the utilization of neuromarketing tools and protocols (quantitative and qualitative), the study explores facial eltromyography (EMG) capabilities and skin conductance responses (SCR) measuring consumers’ emotional responses.

The findings show that at least, 40 percent of the total sample recognized a musical priming effect. The study measures the emotional response to musical priming as positive. Emotional video recognition was much higher in females. Both the self-report and physiological measures support the notion that emotional background music can elicit emotional responses in consumers.

The research measured emotional response to musical priming without testing how these responses influence consumers’ attention and overall behavior.

The five senses, especially hearing, play an important role in the purchasing decision process and in the individual customer experience. People become aware of the products and brands that surround them and make their choice. In terms of digital trading activities and online sales, increasing physiological understanding of musical priming reactions may mean that, for companies, selling low-end online goods may be economically worthwhile to cooperate with platforms such as Spotify or iTunes to select individual users.

More research is needed in priming process techniques in order to better understand how primes activate knowledge in the consumer’s mind. Understanding this process will inform marketers how close a prime needs to be to a target to have an effective influence, as well as when marketers should be concerned about negative priming effects.

At the best of our knowledge, it is the first time that music priming is analyzed in terms of self-report and physiological measures From the measurement’s perspective, the results reaffirm that physiological and self-report measures capture different levels of information. While SCR and EMG capture real-time subconscious responses, MAN scale self-report data provide information regarding how cognitive effort, in terms of intensity and valence, affects brand recall.

This study seeks to examine how follower’s emotional intelligence influences their emotional reactions to leadership.

Data were collected at two points in time. First, I assessed the emotional intelligence of 157 participants in a laboratory setting. Then, a few weeks later, an experiment manipulating leadership behavior was conducted with same participants. After viewing the leader, the participants’ emotional reactions to their attributions of the leader’s behavior were assessed.

In line with expectations, emotional intelligence was associated with different emotional responses to attributions for the leader’s behavior. Specifically, participants lower on emotional intelligence had more extreme emotional responses to the leader than their more highly emotionally intelligent counterparts.

Although emotional intelligence has received a lot of scholarly attention with regard to predicting performance and leadership emergence, we need to learn more about how it influences emotional responses at work.

If emotional intelligence helps promote less extreme emotional reactions at work, emotional skills should be developed in employees.

This study is the first to examine emotional intelligence as a moderator of emotional reactions to attributions of leadership charisma and intent.