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The electric vehicle has been viewed as a technological solution to the dual plagues of dwindling fossil fuel supplies and pollutant emissions from gasoline powered vehicles. Futurists see a world where most personal transportation is electrically powered with energy supplied by tomorrow's power plants. In that future world, automobile power sources — representing millions of uncontrollable sources of pollution and energy waste — are consolidated into fewer, manageable, generators in fixed locations. With fixed and relatively few sources of pollution, resources can be better focused to provide clean, inexpensive energy for transportation. Many people share this vision of the future but few have been able to see how it can be brought into existence. Initial attempts have focused on legislation to stimulate the development of this market. As with any new technology, the electric vehicle field has developed its own terminology. For purposes of clarity throughout mis paper please bear in mind the following definitions.

Purpose – Electric vehicles are very topical in developed countries. The breakthrough of new battery technologies and changing conditions driven by climate policy and growing fossil fuel prices has caused all major car manufacturing countries in the developed world to initiate R&D programmes to gain competitive advantage and to foster market diffusion of electric vehicles (EVs). This chapter looks at developments in China and compares them with observations from developed countries to draw conclusions about differences in their future paths of development.

Methodology – This chapter escribes the potentials and R&D approaches for different types of EVs in developing countries, using China as example, in comparison with developed countries. It looks at innovation strategies, policy framework and potential diffusion of EVs.

Findings – Market diffusion strategies in developed countries and China may differ, since, in the former manufacturers try to implement a premium strategy (i.e. offer high-price sophisticated EVs), while in the latter market, diffusion will probably appear at the lower end of vehicle types, i.e. via electric scooters and small urban vehicles. It is concluded that the market introduction strategies of EVs in developing countries and developed countries could converge because signs of downsizing of vehicles can be observed in the developed world, while upscaling from bikes and electric scooters can be expected for China, so that large-scale market introduction could occur via small city cars.

Implications for China – Instead of following the Western motorisation path, an option for China could be to develop a new one-stop-shop mobility concept integrating small EVs into such a concept.

The Indian government has set an ambitious target for reducing the import of fossil fuels by 10% and introducing an all-electric car fleet by 2030. The Government of India launched the National Electric Mobility Mission Plan (NEMMP) 2020 in 2013 to promote Electric Vehicles (EVs) in India with the objective of providing incentives for use of EVs; encouraging research & development in the areas of battery technology, system integration, testing infrastructure; and promoting charging infrastructure. The Indian government is also working on a scheme by which an electric car can be purchased free of cost: zero down payments, and monthly payments out of savings on the cost of petrol. It is envisaged that sooner or later, e-vehicles will transform the automobile market and provide environmental sustainability to the society. Political stability to provide stable policies is expected to play a key role in driving the growth of such vehicles. So far, preliminary research has been undertaken on perception of Indian Society on EVs. Based on empirical research, this paper attempts to address the gap. A study was conducted from November 2016 to April 2017 in Delhi-NCR with a sample size of 220 professionals working in manufacturing and service industry to understand the upcoming green transport facilities and their perceived environmental benefits as perceived by the residents of the society. Convenience sampling was used to collect the data. The Study highlighted that the design and utility of the EVs need to be reshaped so that it can compete with the gasoline vehicles in the current environment. Almost 95% of the respondents are ready to pay a premium for new technology or EVs. The study revealed that infusion of capital support and government subsidies can play a key role in acquiring new customers and establishing the market for EVs in the Indian market. The results show that there is a need to enhance awareness of NEMMP scheme within the society so that the EV market share can be increased. The results highlight that with availability of options, society will use the transport system which is environment friendly.

The paper highlights the process of electric vehicles optimal design as an inverse problem and presents the global constrained optimization as the best way to solve it.

The electric vehicle optimal design is carried out by a new approach. It consists an electric vehicle design model managed by constrained optimization techniques. It includes sizing models for all drive train components and a vehicle dynamic model build in a new “design way” as an energy‐based model using the response surface methodology. The sensitivity of first simple sizing models can be evaluated by the experimental design method, giving information about the most important part of the model that must be improved.

The result shows the superiority of the constrained optimization technique that treats simultaneously the global optimization and the model adjustment. This method of simultaneous resolution is much more powerful than the successive resolution of each subproblem. The proposed “design approach” used for electric vehicle optimal design offer a large potential in the field of the complex systems design.

The electric vehicle design process is treated on a vehicle design model based on a design approach. It allows determining the drive train components specifications for imposed vehicle performances, taking into account the dynamic model of the vehicle and all components interactions. Furthermore, considering fine components sizing models, the components can be sized taking into account the whole system behavior in an optimal global design.

The aim of this study is to identify and describe the factors associated with Nissan Company's electric vehicle (EV) development. In addition, Nissan's different commercialization strategies toward EV and HEV development will be discussed.

This study uses a descriptive case study approach to provide a deep understanding of successful or failed projects of Nissan. In this term, the company's green car development between 1996 and 2012 will be analyzed. Based on the market presence, Nissan's electric vehicle production trend is divided into two different generations with different characteristics. The gap between these two generations has a structural effect on the current state of Nissan's EV development.

One key factor behind Nissan's success and lead in the current electric vehicle market is the long-term experience with specific type of market structure, which has nurtured the company with a strong green vehicle development capability. The study shows that the electric vehicles market gap acted as a catalyst for later Nissan's successful cases. Also, the authors demonstrate how the dramatic shifts in Nissan strategies helped the company to revitalize its leadership as an electric car guru.

This study provides a better insight into the importance of early stage commercialization strategies in the re-born market of eco-friendly vehicles.

The purpose of this paper is to investigate the diffusion dynamics of electric and hybrid commercial vans and its enabling factors in the city logistics (CL) contexts. The case of parcel delivery in Torino, Italy, is considered. Attention is paid to the influence on the choice of low impact vehicles of not only public strategies but also operational aspects characterizing urban freight distribution systems.

A System Dynamics model based on the Bass diffusion theory computes the number of adopters of low-emission vehicles together with the quantity of vans required and the associated economic savings. The model includes variables about freight demand, delivery frequency, van carrying capacity, routes, stops, distances traveled, and vehicle charging stations. A sensitivity analysis has been completed to identify the main diffusion levers. The focus is on advertising and other drivers, such as public contributions, taxes traditional polluting vehicles are subjected to, as well as on routing optimization strategies.

Advertising programs, green image, and word-of-mouth drive market saturation, although in a long time period. In fact, low-impact vehicles do not offer any economic advantage over traditional ones requiring higher investment and operating costs. Public incentives to purchase both green vehicles and charging stations, together with carbon taxes and a congestion charge affecting polluting vehicles, are able to shorten the adoption time. In particular, public intervention reveals to be effective only when it unfolds through a number of measures that both facilitate the use of environmentally friendly vehicles and discourage the adoption of traditional commercial vans. Route optimization also hastens the complete market saturation.

This work fosters research about the mutual relationships between the diffusion of low-emission commercial vehicles and the operational and contextual CL factors. It provides a structured approach for investigating the feasibility of innovative good vehicles that might be part of assessments of CL measures and requirements. Finally, the model supports studies about the cooperation among stakeholders to identify effective commercial vehicle fleets.

This study fosters collaboration among CL players by providing a roadmap to identify the key factors for the diffusion of environmentally friendly freight vehicles. It also enables freight carriers to assess the operational and economic feasibility of adopting low-impact vehicles. Finally, it might assist public authorities in capturing the effects of new urban transportation policies prior to their implementation.

Most of the current CL literature defines policies and analyzes their effects. Also, there are several contributions on the diffusion of low emission cars. The present study is one of the first works on the diffusion of low-impact commercial vehicles in urban areas by considering the associated key operational factors. A further value is that the proposed model combines operational variables with economic and environmental issues.

Velomobiles or bicycles cars are human-powered vehicles, enclosed for improving aerodynamic performance and protection from weather and collisions. The purpose of this paper is to design and develop a three-wheeled velomobile equipped with a hybrid human-electric propulsion system.

The mechanical layout has been developed in order to improve safety, a CAD code has been used for the design and the dynamic performances have been studied by means of specific multi-body codes. The electric propulsion system has been designed both with analytical and FEM methods.

A special three-wheeled tilting vehicle layout equipped with a four-bar linkage connection has been developed. A particular synchronous reluctance machine has been developed, which is very suitable for human-electric hybrid propulsion. A MATLAB code for integrated mechanical and electrical analysis has been developed.

A new kind of light vehicle has been conceived. A new synchronous reluctance machine with high efficiency has been developed. A performance analysis in electric, human and hybrid working modes has been presented, which takes into account the specific features of both the electric motor and the pedaling legs. A prototype of the vehicle has been built.

Electric freight vehicles (EFVs) are one of the solutions to improve city logistics’ sustainability. EFVs, that are electric powered light and heavy vehicles with a number plate, have the potential to make zero emission city logistics possible within the urban area. However, although trials have been undertaken for the last years, large-scale usage of EFVs in city logistics does not occur yet. EFVs are technically possible, but the implementation of EFVs in practice is relatively limited.

This chapter examines by reviewing current and past EFV implementations, what are the challenges, barriers and success factors for EFVs in city logistics operations. EFVs have especially positive environmental effects, but are overall usually more expensive (especially in procurement) than conventional vehicles. Besides, other technical and operational issues remain to be solved, and many uncertainties still exist on long-term usage.

Three main barriers for large-scale EFV uptake are identified. The current logistics concepts are developed for conventional vehicles and should be redesigned to fit EFVs better. Local authorities’ support is essential in order to find a positive (or not too negative) business case. And EFV implementation requires companies that want to be sustainable. This contribution presents examples of how some companies or authorities deal with these barriers.

This chapter concludes by identifying elements that are necessary for acceleration of EFV uptake in city logistics operations.

The purpose of this paper is the investigation of the main aspects of optimal reliability allocation with respect to the design of hybrid electric vehicles. In particular, with reference to the hybrid electric vehicle propulsion system, the problem of data uncertainty, due to a scarce knowledge of the components' reliabilities, is taken into account. This problem is crucial for new technology systems and it is faced with a Bayesian approach: components' reliabilities are considered as random variables, characterised in the paper by negative log‐gamma distributions.

The main aspects of optimal reliability allocation with the design of hybrid electric vehicles are presented, pointing out the opportunity of a reliability evaluation in the planning stage.

The topic of a series hybrid vehicle reliability is addressed, nevertheless results can be easily extended to the parallel configuration. In particular, the opportunity of a reliability evaluation of the propulsion system in the design stage is highlighted, mainly when new technology components are involved.

The value of the paper consists in the methodology allowing to express the system reliability uncertainty as a function of component uncertain data. Then, as far as concern the practical implications, the optimal allocation of the components' reliabilities can be efficiently performed, in order to minimise the system total cost respecting a prefixed value of the system reliability. In the final part of the paper, a numerical application, related to a series hybrid electric vehicle propulsion system, is presented to show the feasibility of the approach.