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The purpose of this paper is to determine the possibilities and barriers of the practical application of internationally recognized diplomas of higher education.

The authors used SWOT analysis for determining preconditions and barriers as well as possibilities and threats that are related to the provision and practical application of internationally recognized diplomas of higher education and the method of modeling of socio-economic processes and systems for compiling a conceptual model of the provision and practical application of internationally recognized diplomas of higher education. Demand for the practical application of internationally recognized diplomas in modern Russia is determined with the method of analysis of statistical data (method of economic statistics). The information and analytical basis of the research consists of materials of the Federal State Statistics Service of the Russian Federation.

It is shown by the example of modern Russia that the practical application of internationally recognized diplomas is popular, and universities that provide remote education possess wide possibilities in the sphere of their provision, as they are characterized by high flexibility that allows them to adapt to the international standards of university education. The barriers of the practical application of internationally recognized diplomas of higher education are caused by the lack of clear and generally recognized international standards of university education, absence of entrepreneurial culture of application of internationally recognized diplomas and absence of international organization that certifies activities of universities and issues licenses for internationally recognized diplomas.

In order to overcome these barriers, the authors created a conceptual model of the provision and practical application of internationally recognized diplomas of higher education.

This paper aims to contribute to international business research by critically analyzing and evaluating the use of the “international experience” (IE) construct within the specific context of developing cultural intelligence (CQ).

Based on 30 studies selected through a systematic literature review, the IE construct is critically analyzed and evaluated with respect to the terminology, definitions, conceptualizations and measurements used.

Findings indicate that the existing body of knowledge on the construct of IE is fragmented, uses inconsistent terminology, does not uniformly rely on any underlying conceptual frameworks and uses a variety of measures for investigating IE. Additionally, scholars have largely relied on quantitative measures of IE to explain the development of CQ, despite theoretical arguments specifying conditions and circumstances that must occur for learning and development to take place.

To move forward with using the IE construct, the authors emphasize the critical need for scholars to pay greater attention to and explicate how they define, conceptualize and measure it. Based on the identified issues, recommendations to improve future research are provided.

Although IE is frequently assumed to influence the development of CQ, contrary to conventional wisdom and some theoretical arguments, research evidence has demonstrated that the impact of IE on CQ is suggestive rather than conclusive. To understand why this may be the case, the use of the IE construct within previous research is critically analyzed and evaluated.

The purpose of this study is to examine if there is a relationship between the factors of cultural intelligence and transformational leadership in international school leaders.

This correlational research study examined 193 international school leaders, who participated in a survey that included the Cultural Intelligence Scale and the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire 5X. A standard multiple regression analysis was used to determine if the factors of cultural intelligence predict transformational leadership. The individual contribution of each factor to the model was examined.

The results indicate that there is a significant positive relationship between cultural intelligence and transformational leadership in international school leaders. Leaders who have a higher level of cultural intelligence exhibit a higher level of transformational leadership style, which suggests that individuals with high-cultural intelligence are able to lead and to manage more effectively in multicultural environments. Behavioral cultural intelligence and cognitive cultural intelligence were found to be the best predictors of transformational leadership.

The results provide insight into the selection, training, and professional development of international school leaders. Practical implications are provided for integrating cultural intelligence into higher education curriculum.

This paper makes a unique contribution to the nomological network of cultural intelligence by identifying which factors of cultural intelligence best predict transformational leadership in international school leaders, a population to which this model had not been previously applied.

The purpose of this paper is to examine the relative employment levels of return migrants in Finland with regard to their re‐adaptation into the labour market.

Longitudinal census data distinguished Finns who had lived abroad and returned to Finland. These return migrants are compared with non‐migrants with regard to employment levels, using logistic regression models that account for sex, age, education, mother tongue and place of residence.

Both male and female return migrants have odds of employment that are only about half those of their non‐migrant counterparts. The employment differential is stable over time and, consequently, not particularly sensitive to changes in the macroeconomic environment. Relative employment rates of migrants with short periods abroad and long periods in the home country are somewhat higher than those of other migrants, but still lower than those of non‐migrants. Difficulties in readapting into Finnish society are consequently associated with personal characteristics that cannot be observed explicitly but are apparently associated with job‐finding probability.

Considering that Finland at present has no explicit measures directed towards return migrants, it is suggested that this group should be given more policy attention.

The paper provides quantitative evidence that Finnish migrants have substantial difficulties in finding employment in the home country labour market subsequent to return migration, and that these problems cannot be attributed to structural factors.

Turkey’s first “brain drain” wave began in the 1960s, with doctors and engineers among the first group of emigrants. In recent years, attention has shifted to young university graduates who are seriously contemplating starting their careers abroad as a result of the current economic crisis. Postgraduate studies overseas provide the first step for many in fulfilling this goal. This paper provides an evaluation of the findings of a survey conducted during the first half of 2002 on the return intentions of Turkish students studying abroad. Various factors have been cited as important for student non‐return, including political instability, lower salaries and lack of employment opportunities in the home country when studies are completed, as well as a preference to live abroad. In addition to these factors, several other features of Turkey’s political economy are considered to be important in explaining the Turkish brain drain.

The purpose of this paper is to identify the impact of international student mobility (ISM) on the first wages of tertiary education graduates in Poland.

The author uses data from the nationwide tracer survey of Polish graduates (2007 Graduate Tracer Study) and regresses the hourly net wage rate of salaried workers in their first job after graduating from a higher education institution on a rich set of individual characteristics. In order to reduce the bias due to selection to ISM, the author includes a set of variables representing abilities and skills, characteristics of studies, and international experience as control variables. The author addresses the possible selection to employment bias by using the Heckman correction.

After controlling for observed heterogeneity, the author finds that Polish graduates who studied abroad for at least one month earn on average 22 per cent more in their first job than those who studied in Poland only. However, the author also finds that this wage premium is explained by international economic migration after graduation. Studying abroad brings a wage premium only if it is followed by working abroad. Those who perform their first job in Poland do not obtain any wage premium from ISM.

The main contribution of the paper is that it identifies international economic migration after graduation as another mechanism explaining why those who studied abroad earn more.

The worldwide expansion of higher education participation has destabilised the value of higher education as a currency of opportunity. An increasing number of graduates are experiencing the precarity of unemployment, under-employment and low salaries. This study aimed to investigate how university students in China understand and respond to the changing relationship between higher education and career opportunities.

The research team conducted 100 in-depth interviews with final-year undergraduates at one elite and one lower-tier university in a metropolitan city in Guangdong Province.

The students were acutely aware of fierce competition in the graduate labour market. When asked “what matters most” for post-graduation career prospects, they identified elite universities and high-status fields of study as “traditional” currencies of opportunity. Nonetheless, to stand out in a competitive environment, they perceived a growing need to supplement higher education credentials through university experiences (internships, student governance, study abroad programmes), party membership, personal connections and (overseas) postgraduate education. Moreover, in a “race to the top”, they discussed how qualitatively distinctive university experiences and elite postgraduate education are “new” currencies of opportunity for high-status professional employment.

The study demonstrates how intensified competition for graduate employment can result in an “opportunity trap”. The students were participating in an “arms race” to accumulate positional advantages for their post-graduation careers. The net impact of such efforts on a systemic level is to create an upward spiral in what students are expected to do in preparation for their post-graduation careers and further destabilise the value of higher education as a currency of opportunity.

The paper aims to present research findings on the return intentions of Turkish professionals residing abroad, where the targeted group comprises individuals working at a full‐time job abroad who possess at least a tertiary level degree.

The study uses a descriptive framework to establish the validity of several proposed models of non‐return. The results are based on an internet survey of Turkish professionals conducted by the authors during the first half of 2002. A combination of internet search and referral sampling methods is used to collect the data. Correspondence analysis is used to examine the relationship between return intentions and various factors that may affect this intention.

The results emphasize the importance of student non‐return versus traditional brain and appear to complement the various theories of student non‐return. Many Turkish professionals working abroad are non‐returning post‐graduate students rather than holders of higher degrees obtained in Turkey who subsequently moved. The respondents appear to come from relatively well‐to‐do families with highly educated parents. Many have earned their degrees from universities that have foreign language instruction. The recent economic crises in Turkey have negatively affected return intentions. It is verified that return intentions are indeed linked closely with initial return plans, and that this relationship weakens with stay duration. Specialized study and work experience in the host country also all appear to contribute to explaining the incidence of non‐return. Return intentions are weaker for those working in an academic environment.

The study is the first of its kind for Turkey and other developing countries in terms of the number of responses received and the kind of information collected. Implications are valuable for Turkish and other developing country planners.

Using a Southeast Asian context, this paper asks a question that has seldom been researched: Is there a divergence between parents’ and their college-going children’s perceptions of education and employability at a time of rapid economic change? If such a divergence exists, it would have hidden costs for the children. Parents’ choice of professions no longer in demand when their children reach working age can permanently damage the latter’s earning power. Also, parents’ choice of fields of study that their children are not proficient or interested in jeopardizes the latter’s chances of success in their studies. The paper aims to discuss these issues.

Data were collected using mixed methods, a combination of structured online questionnaires from two local special-purpose sample surveys conducted by the authors, and follow-up interviews. Graduate Employment Survey 2 (GES2) was the second of a three-phase British Council-sponsored study, focusing on TNE, that used a structured online questionnaire for students of several tertiary education institutions, both in the public and private sectors, and for several group interviews of students in 2015. A structured questionnaire was also administered to a small number of parents.

In terms of employment, the rankings of HEIs by parents and students were generally consistent. Study in foreign HEIs abroad has the highest likelihood of employment. Branch campuses were ranked next highest. Despite this, of interest is the difference in mean scores between first and second ranked HEIs. Whereas students rate branch campuses as not much inferior to foreign university campuses, parents see a major gulf between them – they rate foreign campuses more highly than branch campuses more poorly. This difference is likely caused by parents’ traditional preference for foreign study over local, coupled with a lack of TNE knowledge.

A fundamental issue of perception is how parents and students see the role of education. Is education a destination or is education a journey? This disconnect has consequences. Given the shifting nature of employment, the need for transferable skills and the fact that some of the jobs that the next generation will be doing are not even known today, parental advice based on what they know may not do justice to their children’s choice of career. Likewise, the approach of TNE to promote traditional degrees to job paths is also a conventional approach that has a limited shelf life.

The role of parents in education choice has received surprisingly scant academic attention. With technological change driving product and service innovation ever more rapidly, previously unknown types of work have emerged in a relatively short span of time. In this situation, the risk of mismatched perceptions between parents and their children, whose educational experience spans a generation, is becoming increasingly real. While most studies of a parental role have been undertaken for Western countries, there is much less research on East Asian parents’ role in their children’s education.

Higher education researchers are often challenged by the difficulty of empirically validating causal links posited by theories or inferred from correlational observations. The instrumental variable (IV) estimation strategy is one approach that researchers can use to estimate the causal impact of various higher education–related interventions. In this chapter, we discuss how the body of quantitative research specifically devoted to higher education has made use of the IV estimation strategy: we describe how this estimation strategy was used to address causality concerns and provide examples of the types of IVs that were used in various subfields of higher education research. Our discussion is based on a systematic review of a corpus of econometric studies on higher education–related issues that spans the last 30 years. The chapter concludes with a critical discussion of the use of IVs in quantitative higher education research and a discussion of good practices when using an IV estimation strategy.