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The composition of bank liabilities has captured a lot of attention especially after the global financial crisis of 2008–2009. It is argued that a compositional change in non-core liabilities reflects the different stages of financial cycle. Banks usually fund their credits with core liabilities, which grow with households’ wealth, but when there is a faster growth in credits compared to deposits, the banks often resort to non-core liabilities to meet the excess demand for loans. This chapter analyses the relationship between non-core liabilities and credits in a small open economy, namely Turkey. It investigates the relationship under alternative settings and presents consistent evidence on a robust relationship between credits and non-core liabilities under all frameworks. The study also verifies that elevated demand for credit may induce some increase in non-core liabilities. Finally, the relationship between non-core liabilities and credit growth is also affirmed in the long run.

At present, countries are concerned about inflation and the impact of inflation on each country’s economic growth. This inflation has been said by economists that inflation is a phenomenon of currency and currency, which has caused inflation in some countries by their monetary policy. According to the economic theory of Karl Marx, Irving Fisher, Friedman, inflation is caused by a continuous increase in the money supply.

The economic theories of Fisher, Friedman and an econometric model are applied to analyse the relationship between money supply and inflation. Besides, Vietnam’s and China’s research data are also collected in the period of 2012-2016.

It is found out that the continuous increase in the money supply causes inflation in the long-term, but the continuous increase in the money supply growth does not cause inflation in a short time, this was analyzed based on the theory of monetary quantity. Moreover, Chia’s and Vietnam’s correlations of the money supply growth and inflation are 99.1 per cent. These correlations are very close.

Research results show that money supply and inflation are closely related, and the money supply directly affects economic growth. Therefore, the government should have the relevant monetary policy to grow the economy and proposals to make monetary policy, control inflation levels and stimulate economic growth.

This study aims to examine the influence of socioeconomic development on inflation in South Asia using the foreign exchange rate and money supply as control variables.

The study uses annual panel data for five South Asian economies, namely, Bangladesh, India, Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka over the period 1990–2018, applies cointegrating regression techniques, namely, the panel dynamic ordinary least square (OLS) and fully modified OLS estimators to examine the long-run relations and conducts the Toda-Yamamoto Granger causality test to detect the direction of causality among variables.

The cointegrating regression estimations have documented that the socioeconomic development proxied by the human development index (HDI) has no significant impact on inflation. Although economic development represented by gross domestic product (GDP) growth causes inflation, socioeconomic development represented by HDI has no impact on inflation and has demonstrated as a better macroeconomic indicator, and thus creates no inflationary pressure in the economy. The foreign exchange rate has a positive impact on inflation. The broad money supply has the usual positive effect on domestic inflation that endorses the monetarist view about prices. The Toda-Yamamoto Granger causality test has confirmed several unidirectional causalities: inflation causes HDI, money supply causes both inflation and HDI and the foreign exchange rate causes HDI.

The study has practical implications for policymakers in South Asia, to improve HDI, particularly GDP per capita, education and health-care facilities to realize continuous socioeconomic development, which will take care of inflation. Moreover, these counties may follow a conservative monetary policy to control inflationary pressure in their economies.

The study is original and claims to be the first to examine the impact of socioeconomic development on inflation. The findings have socioeconomic values regarding controlling inflation in South Asia.

This paper analyzes the two main divergent interpretations of Federal Reserve monetary policy in the 1920s, the expansionary view described by Rothbard (2008a [1963]) and earlier “Austrian” writers, and the contractionary view most notably held by Friedman and Schwartz (1993 [1963]) and later monetary historians. This paper argues in line with the former that the Federal Reserve engaged in expansionary monetary policy during the 1920s, as opposed to the gold sterilization view of the latter. The main rationale for this argument is that the increase in the money supply was driven by the increase in the money multiplier and total bank reserves, both of which were caused primarily by Fed policy (i.e., a decrease in reserve requirements and an increase in controlled reserves, respectively). Showing that this expansion did in fact occur provides the first step in supporting an Austrian Business Cycle Theory (ABCT) interpretation of the 1920s, namely that the Federal Reserve created a credit fueled boom that led to the Great Depression, although this is not pursued in the paper.

The development of blockchain and cryptocurrency may alleviate the economic strain associated with recession. Economic recessions tend to be aggregate-demand driven, meaning that they are caused by fluctuations in the supply of or demand for money. Holding monetary policy as solution assumes that stability must arise from outside of the economic system. Under a policy regime that allows innovations in blockchain to develop, blockchain technology may promote a money supply that is responsive to changes in demand to hold money. The purpose of this paper is to suggest that cryptocurrencies present an opportunity to profitably implement rules that promote macroeconomic stability. In particular, cryptocurrency that is asset-backed may provide a means for cheaply attaining liquidity during a crisis.

The role of cryptocurrency in promoting macroeconomic equilibrium is approached through the lens of monetary theory. Moves away from macroeconomic equilibrium necessitate either a change in the average price of money or a change in the quantity of money, or a change in portfolio demand for money. Cryptocurrency promotes an increase, however this requires the alignment of policy regulating the use of cryptocurrency, reduction in taxes placed on the use of cryptocurrency and cryptocurrency protocol.

Cryptocurrency is unlikely to become legal tender, but it may alleviate macroeconomic fluctuations as a near money that provides liquidity and whose supply is sensitive to changes in demand to hold money and money-like substitutes. This role might be inhibited if policy stifles the development of cryptocurrencies and blockchain technology.

New financial innovations like cryptocurrencies can be analyzed applying the equation of exchange in light of the mechanics of money creation under conditions of disequilibrium. Monetary disequilibrium may be promoted by policy that causes bottlenecks in financial markets.

Theory of monetary disequilibrium has broad implications for the development and regulation of financial markets. This theory has not been applied to the development of cryptocurrency markets.

The purpose of this paper is to examine the likely determinants of the demand for official international reserves (hereafter reserves) for India and China in the long run in a basic buffer stock model. The paper also examines the role of domestic money market disequilibrium in the short-run demand for official reserves for both the countries in a dynamic synthesis model.

The study used quarterly data for the time period 1993:Q1–2015:Q4. The long-run model is being estimated by following the Frenkel–Jovanovic (1981) buffer stock model and includes the determinants such as transaction motive variable (GDP or Imports), opportunity cost variable (domestic interest rate), precautionary motive variable (volatility of reserves) and exchange rate. The study also examined the role of domestic money market disequilibrium in addition to the above variables in the short-run reserve demand model. The money market disequilibrium term is expected to be negative and significant in the short run. The study employed autoregressive distributed lag bound testing approach to co-integration and unrestricted error-correction model (UECM) approach developed by Pesaran et al. (2001) for estimating the long-run and short-run models, respectively.

The co-integration test suggests the existence of long-run relationship between international reserves and its determinants. In the long run, all the variables are statistically significant with expected sign, except domestic interest rate variable for China. It is also found that, the money market disequilibrium term in the short run is negative and significant which validates that an excessive money demand (supply) induces an inflow (outflow) of international reserves for both India and China with a lag of four quarters. The recursive residual tests (CUSUM and CUSUMSQ) confirm the stability of both long-run and short-run reserve demand models.

The findings and policy implications of this study may be useful for the policy makers of the similar emerging economies for designing money and currency policies.

This paper is a comparative study which systematically analyzed the reserve demand behavior of the two emerging economies India and China. The study integrates the domestic money market with the international reserve demand behavior for these two economies.

The purpose of this paper is to examine monetary policies and bank lending in the emerging economies of Sub-Sahara Africa.

The dynamic system-generalized method of moments (GMM) that overcomes issues of unobserved period and country-specific effects, as well as potential endogeneity of explanatory variables, is applied in the estimation exercise. The study uses the data for 80 banks across 20 Sub-Saharan African countries from 2010 to 2019.

The findings show that expansionary monetary policy such as an increase in money supply stimulates bank lending, while contractionary monetary policies like increase in the monetary policy rates by the central banks lead to credit contraction, albeit a weak effect due to possible underdevelopment of financial markets, institutional constraints, bank concentration and other rigidities in the system characteristic of developing countries that undermine the effectiveness of monetary policy transmission. Capital adequacy ratio and size of economic activities are other variables that significantly influence bank lending channels.

Sub-Sahara Africa countries can enhance the effectiveness of monetary policy transmission on bank lending through the effective use of the transmission mechanism of changes in money supply and monetary policy rate.

While greater empirical attention has been devoted to the nexus between monetary policies and macroeconomic variables in country-specific studies, the connection between monetary policies and bank lending at an extensive regional or cross-country level is still scanty. For Sub-Saharan Africa, there is a palpable lack of empirical evidence on this. This study, therefore, seeks to fill this gap in a region where the impact of monetary policies on credit intermediation is crucial to the economic diversification efforts of the governments of Sub-Sahara Africa.

The purpose of this paper is organized as follows. Section 2 reviews the literature on the subject matter, focusing on western economic literature and the Islamic economic paradigm, including the Quran, Sunnah, jurisprudence and Islamic philosophy thinking, to illustrate the origins of the Islamic approach to monetary systems. The money interest rate and its studies are explained, and the role of money and credit in the production function is considered. Then, it is shown that money maintains the demand for money in the overlapping generation model, as well as the consumption behavior of households. It is followed by an explanation of general Pareto optimality and the role of the money interest rate in inefficiency and nonoptimality for households and firms. Finally, Section 4 concludes the paper.

This paper studies the effects of money issuance and bank creation on Pareto optimality. In explaining the origins of the Islamic approach to monetary systems, the literature review, it focuses on western economics’ literature and Islamic economics paradigms such as the Quran, sunnah, jurisprudence and Islamic philosophy thinking. In modeling section, the authors show how banks’ fractional reserve credit is profitable. The authors also examine how the introduction of the money interest rate can change the Pareto optimality. In this regard, the comparison between two situations, namely, financing by the stock of money and borrowing in the credit market, indicates that welfare is reduced by the creation system and is inefficient (or nonoptimal). The result is that no money and no credits are created. The provision of this system compensates money by increasing the real money supply or deflation. To ensure Pareto optimality, it has been proven in the field of microfoundation that there should be no fixed money contracts and no money interest rates. It is necessary that the interest rate on consumption credit is zero or Qarz-al-Hasna is broken. Moreover, profit sharing is offered in the production sector.

As a result, the authors proved mathematically that the money interest rate must be zero to ensure productivity and Pareto optimality. On the other hand, the introduction of money or credit through loanable money leads to inefficiency, both in production and households and in the general equilibrium. The inflation generated by the credit system stimulates the change in the price level and perpetuates this inefficiency. Thus, if the authors want to return to the optimality condition, the interest rate on consumption credit must be zero or Qarz-al-Hasna is breached. However, the behavior of the fractional banking system and the credit mechanism teaches us that the money interest rate is an integral part of credit and loanable funds. Thus, the elimination of the money interest rate from the banking system without bank creation is implausible. Finally, to ensure Pareto optimality, it has been mathematically proven in the field of microfoundation that there should be no fixed money contracts and no money interest rate. It is necessary that the interest rate on consumption credit is zero, or Qarz-al-Hasna is broken. Moreover, profit sharing is offered in the production sector. The result is that no money and credit are created. The provision of this system compensates money by increasing the real money supply or deflation.

The capitalist theory of the definition of interest plays a decisive role in economic science. In this context, the authors are dealing with different vocabularies and terms for the interest rate. These different vocabularies have their origin in the different economic situations and especially determine the thinking of the schools. Because of the relationship between future and spot, the authors have to transform the variable “level” into the variable “interest rate” in the dynamic space. Finally, the exact explanations for the movement and evaluation of the economy are revealed by the correlation of the different interest rates.

This chapter discusses the “seigniorage argument” in favor of public money issuance, according to which public finances could be improved if the state more fully exercised the privilege of money creation, which is, today, largely shared with private banks. This point was made in the 1930s by several proponents of the “100% money” reform scheme, such as Henry Simons of the University of Chicago, Lauchlin Currie of Harvard and Irving Fisher of Yale, who called for a full-reserve requirement in lawful money behind checking deposits. One of their claims was that, by returning all seigniorage profit to the state, such reform would allow a significant reduction of the national debt. In academic debates, however, following a criticism first made by Albert G. Hart of the University of Chicago in 1935, this argument has generally been discarded as wholly illusory. Hart argued that, because the state, under a 100% system, would be likely to pay the banks a subsidy for managing checking accounts, no substantial debt reduction could possibly be expected to follow. The 100% money proponents never answered Hart’s criticism, whose conclusion has often been considered as definitive in the literature. However, a detailed study of the subject reveals that Hart’s analysis itself appears to be questionable on at least two grounds: the first pertains to the sources of the seigniorage benefit, the other to its distribution. This chapter concludes that the “seigniorage argument” of the 100% money authors may not have been entirely unfounded.

Bank lending is the major source of monetary expansion. Bank-led money creation is a key issue in both conventional and Islamic financial systems. The purpose of this paper is to examine the issues related to Islamic banking money creation. In this conceptual paper, the authors investigate the involvement of profit and loss sharing (PLS) in money creation and especially how can PLS limit money creation “out of nothing.” In this regard, the authors examine the potential of the PLS principle in tackling the excessive money creation phenomenon.

This study uses a normative approach regarding Islamic bank money creation that fits Sharia directives. In fact, this study discusses “what ought to be,” that is, the values and norms of PLS money creation that impede excessive money creation.

Overall, Islamic banks create money differently compared to conventional ones. Especially, by avoiding a purely financial intermediary, money creation under the PLS principle sustains a strong relationship with the real economy and leads to a lower money multiplier. Therefore, PLS mechanisms allow financing through real assets and not credit assets “out of nothing.” This could prevent excessive money creation from causing harmful effects on indebtedness and financial instability.

PLS offers a valuable resolution for banking system money creation through the optimization of Islamic bank financing by facilitating the separation of the monetary function from the credit one. This reform thought reinforces the stability value of money allowing it to fully perform its functions with reference to the directives of Sharia. This especially allows the integrity and purchasing power of money, the reduction of the gap between the evolution of both real and financial economies and, consequently, the indebtedness and crisis. It is recommended to promote PLS financing by reforming institutional and regulatory constraints.

This study addresses the contemporary issue of money creation by Islamic banks through the PLS approach. The conceptual framework of this paper highlights the reformist role of PLS in limiting money creation through Mudarabah approach within fractional reserve banking.