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Dyadic multi-dimensionality informs the variation that exists within and between network ties and suggests that ties are not all the same and not all equally strategic. This chapter presents a model of dyadic evolution grounded in dyadic multi-dimensionality and framed within actor-level, dyadic-level, endogenous, and exogenous contexts. These contexts generate both strategic catalysts that motivate network action and bounded agency that may constrain such network action. Assuming the need to navigate within bounded agency, the model highlights three strategic processes that demonstrate how dyadic multi-dimensionality underlies the evolution of strategic network ties.

The authors systematically review empirical dyadic service encounter research published in top-tier journals between 1972 and 2022.

The authors employed bibliometric techniques, co-citation analysis and bibliographic coupling analysis to map schools of thought and research frontiers within the dyadic service encounter literature. In total, the authors analyzed 155 articles. To ensure inclusion of high-quality research, the authors screened articles from 139 journals with “4” or “4*” ratings on the 2021 Chartered Association of Business Schools (ABS) journal list, in addition to articles published in three service sector-specific journals: Journal of Service Management, Journal of Services Marketing and Journal of Service Theory and Practice.

The authors' co-citation analysis identified four distinct clusters within the dyadic service encounter literature: (1) shaping and explaining service encounters; (2) emotions in service work; (3) modeling, manipulating and measuring encounter service quality and (4) emotional labor and regulation in dyadic service encounters. Furthermore, the authors' bibliographic coupling analysis generated three research clusters: (1) service encounter characteristics; (2) emotions and emotional labor and (3) service encounter interaction content.

The authors' comprehensive review synthesizes knowledge, summarizing similarities among research clusters within the service encounter realm. Noteworthy are research clusters that clarify the emotion-based underpinnings and reciprocal nature of behaviors and emotions within dyadic encounters. By conducting complementary bibliometric analyses, the authors trace the evolution of the service encounter literature, providing an overview of the present state of dyadic service encounter research. These analyses offer valuable insights into the current landscape of the field, identifying future dyadic service encounter research opportunities.

An underlying assumption in the shared mental model (SMM) literature is that SMMs improve whilst team members work together for longer. However, whether dyad members indeed have higher perceived SMMs with higher shared tenure has not been explored. This study aims to, therefore, firstly, investigate this idea, and we do so by focusing on perceived SMMs at the dyadic level. Secondly, because in today’s fast-paced world perceived SMMs often need to be built quickly for dyads to perform, we assess if goal interdependence can reduce the dyadic tenure required for higher perceived SMM similarity. Thirdly, we analyse if these processes are related to dyadic performance.

We collected a dual-source sample of 88 leader–member dyads across various industries. We conducted PROCESS analyses to test their first-stage moderated mediation model.

Results showed that dyadic tenure was positively related to perceived SMM similarity, and that goal interdependence moderated this relationship. Additionally, perceived SMM similarity mediated the relationship between dyadic tenure and dyadic performance. Lastly, the overall moderated mediation model was supported.

We contribute to the perceived SMM literature by: investigating perceived SMMs in dyads, testing a key idea regarding the influence of dyadic tenure on perceived SMMs and investigating how goal interdependence may prompt perceived SMM similarity earlier in dyadic tenure and, ultimately, improve dyadic performance.

Congruence serves as a key framework in many leader–follower dyad theories. This paper aims to introduce polynomial regression analysis with response surface methodology (PRA with RSM) as a statistical technique for investigating research questions concerning leader–follower dyadic relationships in the hospitality context.

First, this paper illustrates the necessity of applying PRA with RSM to more effectively address the research issues related to leader–follower dyadic relationships. Next, this paper presents an overview and the key concepts of PRA with RSM. Critical issues that need to be noted and two recent hospitality leadership studies that have used PRA with RSM are discussed. Third, an empirical example in the hotel context is provided to illustrate the application of PRA with RSM.

By applying this methodology to the study of hospitality leader–follower dyadic relationships, researchers will be able to address a range of topics related to dyadic theory, such as leader–member exchange and value congruence.

PRA with RSM reveals that congruence effects vary within leader–follower dyads. Industry professionals can promote a better leader–follower fit by incorporating dyadic surveys to understand mutual agreement and perceptions regarding same-workplace phenomena.

The paper addresses the misalignment between leader–follower dyadic theory and the methodology used in hospitality leadership studies.

The paper analyzes how the goal-setting of two individuals or social units A and B determines the utilities, which the two parties can gain in a dyadic interaction.

The analysis is based on a dyadic utility space representing the utilities of A and B along the x and y axis, respectively. In this space the goal-orientation of an individual action is mapped with a vector, where its angle shows the combination of utilities of A and B aimed at, and the length corresponds to the strength of an action.

Analyzing actions of A and responses of B in the dyadic utility space allows (a) calculating single and joint utilities, (b) identifying the narrow range of equal utility for both and (c) identifying four vectors for maximizing different combinations of utility. Studying combinations of these four vectors in a 4 × 4 ‘Interaction - Utility Matrix’ shows how the goal-setting of A for a prime action widely predetermines, before a response of B, the realizable dyadic utility for both.

The dyadic utility space allows illustrating any dyadic interaction: It shows all possible dyadic “payoffs” investigated in game theory; it allows studying repeated exchange and resulting accumulation of utility; it allows mapping power relations.

The paper shows the interrelation between cybernetic principles of control, goal-orientated human behavior and the utility concept of social sciences. And it allows rejecting Adam Smith’s 18th myth of an “invisible hand”.

Argues that the unidirectional measurement and evaluation of service quality in any specific service encounter is not enough in itself to understand the existing service quality between two actors in a dyadic service encounter. Therefore, a method is introduced for the express purpose of analysing the perceptual bi‐directionality of service quality in order to measure and evaluate the dynamics of service quality in dyadic service encounters.

The purpose of this paper is to explore whether surface-level actual similarity interacts with leader-member dyadic communication agreement in predicting group member performance ratings at earlier time periods in a work group’s development. Additionally, this research examines whether deep-level perceived similarity interacts with leader-member dyadic communication agreement in predicting group member performance ratings at later time periods in a work group’s development. The relationship between shared cultural context and perceived and actual similarity is also investigated.

This research analyzes longitudinal data from the study questionnaires at five occasions in a Malaysian organization.

Results based on a sample of 28 group projects and 141 matching dyad who completed the study questionnaires at 5 occasions reveal that there is no interaction between workgroup relational ethnicity and workgroup relational gender with leader-member dyadic agreement at early time periods in a workgroup’s development. Therefore, H1 is not supported. H2 posited that deep-level perceived similarity will interact with leader-member dyadic communication agreement in predicting group member performance ratings at later time periods in a workgroup’s development. H2 is supported. Results reveal that the interaction between leader-member dyadic communication agreement and perceived similarity explains 36 percent of the variance of perceived group members’ performance ratings. This is after accounting for the control variable and the independent variables. From a cultural standpoint, the findings in this study underscore that conversations based on the Malaysian cultural norm of “budi” reflect not only a cultural basis of communication, but also that this shared cultural context leads to perceived similarity between ethnic Malay, Chinese, and Indians, and also both genders in the Malaysian workplace.

Leader-member dyadic communication agreement reflects the social appropriateness and relationship quality between individuals, as well as the context of the leader-member workgroup interactions. The findings of this study underscore the premise that conversations reflect not only a cultural basis of communication, but also that shared cultural context leads to perceived similarity. This study specifically examines the role of ethnicity in Malaysia organizational workgroup (e.g. ethnic Malay, Chinese Malay, and Indian Malay) as well as gender.

This study systematically examines the influence of actual and perceived similarity in leader-member dyadic communication from a longitudinal and multilevel standpoint.

The purpose of this paper is to develop a social exchange perspective of planned short‐term dyadic strategic alliances.

The article adopts a conceptual approach drawing on social exchange theory to elicit innovative conclusions about short‐term dyadic strategic alliances.

Finds that planned short‐term dyadic strategic alliances are difficult to manage, limit social control mechanisms, limit reciprocal activity and interrupt the development of trust.

The article can help managers and analysts working in investment banking to understand the underlying causes of alliance instability and/or failure in their industry.

The article offers practical insights into the functioning and management of short‐term dyadic alliances which will be of interest to both researchers and practising managers.

The objective of this research is to describe and apply a method with which to measure and evaluate mutual trust in dyadic business relationships with both one‐to‐one and multiple informants, as well as symmetric and asymmetric interactions.

Application of the perceptual bi‐directionality method, i.e. the PBD‐method, is introduced in this context to measure and evaluate the relationship properties of mutual trust in the context of one‐to‐one and multiple informants, as well as the symmetric and asymmetric interactions, in dyadic business relationships.

The overall impression of the mutual trust in the studied relationships is that they are well balanced. It may erroneous, since there may be balance deficiencies between the various trust dimensions. The stepwise evaluation of a case example reveals that there are substantial differences between the various trust dimensions measured in the dyadic business relationship.

It is argued that the measurement and evaluation of unidirectional trust issues is not enough in itself to understand the relationship properties of trust between two actors in dyadic business relationships, but that a bi‐directional approach should be applied in terms of the relationship properties of mutual trust. Furthermore, the approach of one‐to‐one key informants might also be insufficient. Instead multiple informants should be used in the measurement and evaluation of the relationship properties of mutual trust in dyadic business relationships and, symmetric, as well as asymmetric, interactions of mutual trust in dyadic contexts should be considered.

The PBD‐method is a formalised and structured method of how to measure and evaluate the mutuality of relationship properties in dyadic contexts. The outcome of the present research is also a set of generic mutuality measures that can be useful in different management and research applications.

The PBD‐method may be used to measure and evaluate multiple key informants' in asymmetric interactions of mutual relationship properties in dyadic contexts, instead of only matching one‐to‐one key informants in symmetric interactions.

The purpose of this paper is to examine the underlying process of a relative leader–member dyadic communication behavior linking association between ethical leadership and organizational identification in Malaysia’s diverse workplace.

Based on relational dyadic communication, social comparison and social identity theories, the authors develop a mediation model. The model illustrates the link between the relative leader–member dyadic communication behavior processes, ethical leadership and organizational identification. The model was tested on a sample of 273 group members from 58 groups working in large government link corporations in Malaysia.

Results of hierarchical regression analysis provide support for the model. The authors found that ethical leadership was positively related to relative leader–member dyadic communication behavior based on the norms and values of budi context. Budi is a social norm in the Malaysian context that helps employees to know how they should interact with others. Budi is manifested through the use of language and should be used or present in the interactions or conversations with others.

The relative shared norms and values of budi mediate the relationship between ethical leadership and organizational identification after controlling for the perception of individual leader–member dyadic communication behavior on norms and values of budi.