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The Uppsala internationalization model is one of the widely accepted models for the development of exports. This model suggests that the explanation of relations between psychic distance, its antecedents and marketing mix adaptation would lead to successful export practices. Consequently, this study aims to determine the determinants of export performance, antecedents of psychic distance and marketing mix adaptation.

This study uses a mixed-methods research design in which qualitative and quantitative research methods were used together. The face-to-face interview method was used to identify the psychic distance antecedents. The face-to-face interview was with eight Turkish exporting firms. Based on the data obtained from face-to-face interviews, a scale for measuring the antecedents of psychic distance has been developed and used in the quantitative study. The scales used for measuring marketing mix adaptation, export performance and psychic distance perception, which has both individual and country dimensions, were adapted from the literature. Data were collected from 221 Turkish exporting companies for quantitative research. Structural equation modeling was used to test relationships between the variables.

As a result of the data analysis of face-to-face interviews, six antecedents of psychic distance were determined. According to the subsequent quantitative research results, it has been determined that employee expertise, which is one of the antecedents of psychic distance, only affects the country dimension of psychic distance perception; the cooperation, institutionalization and international market experience affect both the country and individual dimensions of psychic distance perception. The country and individual dimensions of psychic distance were found to have an impact on the product, price, promotion and distribution dimensions of marketing mix adaptation. Only the product dimension of marketing mix adaption was found to affect export performance.

This study offers a comprehensive perspective for both theoretical and practical studies by discussing various aspects that would help improve the exporting activities of firms within the scope of antecedents of perceived psychic distance.

In this research, a scale was developed for measuring the antecedents of psychic distance, and the variables affecting export performance were analyzed holistically.

This study combines institutional and organizational learning perspectives to investigate the impact of institutional distance and institution-specific cross-border acquisition experience in emerging markets on cross-border acquisition performance.

The sample consists of 874 transactions involving targets across 37 emerging markets by 484 different acquirers from 45 developed and emerging markets. The authors decompose institutional distance and acquisition experience along their cultural, administrative, geographic and economic dimensions.

The authors find that cultural, administrative and geographic distance have a negative impact on acquisition performance. In contrast, economic distance does not appear detrimental to acquisition performance across markets. The study provides evidence that a company may apply learnings from previous transactions in similar cultural and economic emerging market environments to elevate the likelihood of a successful acquisition.

This study offers a more fine-grained perspective of the distance concept by decomposing the concepts of institutional distance and acquisition experience along different institutional dimensions. The research across 37 emerging markets sheds light on which of the similarities and differences between these markets are relevant concerning acquisition experience and performance.

Understanding institutional distance – i.e., the difference in institutional context between countries – is critical for firms whose operations span national boundaries. Institutional distance impacts the relative attractiveness of country markets, trade-offs among foreign market entry strategies, the management of subsidiaries abroad, and ultimately, firm performance. Although scholars in various disciplines have made great advances in defining and measuring the institutional characteristics of nations, we contend that many of these advances have occurred in a parallel fashion. Moreover, extant empirical studies focus disproportionately on the impact of different subsets of the identified institutional characteristics. We suggest that it is time to find common ground across the disparate literatures. Doing so would allow us to view differences in institutional contexts more holistically, and refine our understanding of their implications for multinational corporations.

The purpose of this paper is to investigate the relationship between Canadian and Indian consumers' national cultural orientations and banking service quality expectations. Using two of Hofstede's five cultural dimensions operationalized at the individual level, and five dimensions of service quality from Parasuraman et al.'s SERVQUAL scale, the aim is to develop and test hypotheses relating national culture values to service quality expectations.

The study is quantitative in nature, using surveys (online and written) from respondents in Canada and India. Data were analyzed using dummy variable regression and structural equation modeling.

The results show that the importance of various SERVQUAL dimensions is related to Hofstede's power distance and individualism cultural dimensions both at the individual and national levels. More specifically, consumers low on power distance expect highly responsive and reliable service. High power distance customers attach higher importance to tangible service attributes. Consumers high on individualism expect lower empathy and assurance from service providers. Furthermore, Indian consumers attach higher importance to tangible attributes, whereas Canadian consumers find service reliability more important. However, differences in overall service quality expectations are not significantly different across the two countries.

The results suggest that managers must be aware of the cultural values of the buyer/client in order to fully understand the most effective means of establishing and nurturing the service delivery process and, consequently, establishing service quality expectations. Banks will be more successful when service delivery is in tune with cultural imperatives, particularly sub‐group cultural imperatives.

The study provides an original insight into the manner in which national culture impacts on service quality expectations. Furthermore, the study identifies individual sub‐cultural influences that shape service quality expectations.

This study aims to investigate the interacting effect of two forms of psychic distance (business and cultural) on export relationship management. Specifically, this research examines the moderating role of cultural distance in the effect of business distance on different dimensions of relationship management and financial export performance.

This research builds on a sample of 174 French export executives who were asked to rate their views of their relationship with their Chinese business counterpart in the wine trade, and their related performance.

A first finding lies in the strong positive effects of relationship management, relationship investment and communication quality on financial export performance. A second and important finding relates to the different effects of the business and cultural dimensions of psychic distance, while the former positively affects relationship management, the latter negatively moderates the effect of business distance on relationship management.

One limitation pertains to the focus on France and China as the only countries involved in the current research. Future research could investigate whether the results replicate in different countries. Further studies would also be needed to enrich the relationship management dimensions and test whether the effects observed here replicate in relation to other dimensions.

For export managers, this research offers a better understanding of business and cultural distance, and their effects on relationship structuring. Specifically, the results indicate that cultural distance matters more than business distance, meaning that business distance can help relationship management only when cultural distance is low. In addition, the results indicate that wine producers might gain from communicating openly with their business counterparts, for instance, by clearly explaining the business objectives, or through continuous interactions and temporal and financial investments.

The originality of this research lies in identifying the interaction effect of the business and cultural dimensions of psychic distance, with cultural distance revealed as a boundary condition for the effects of business distance on relationship management. The inclusion of marketing and financial aspects constitutes a further original aspect.

Purpose – Cultural distance (CD) reflects differences in cultural values across countries. Many studies have used CD to explain strategies and outcomes in international business practices, although often with limited success. This chapter demonstrates previously unrecognized problems with the conceptualization, analysis, and interpretation of CD measures and suggests methods for improvements in CD research.

Design/methodology/approach – Problems with traditional methods in CD research are demonstrated analytically and illustrated with correlation and regression analyses of secondary data. One analysis shows that individual cultural dimensions may provide alternative explanations for hypothesized effects of distance. Two other examples illustrate the incorrect conclusions that traditional analysis approaches may suggest.

Findings – The difference scores that are implicit in measures of CD usually imply unrealistic constraints on relationships between variables. Analyzing CD at the level of organizations rather than countries exaggerates the available sample size and may result in inaccurate statistical tests.

Research limitations/implications – The empirical examples illustrate problems with methodology for CD research. They are not proposed as substantive, generalizable tests of hypotheses.

Originality/value of the chapter – This chapter provides original arguments to augment existing criticisms of CD research. It shows that findings from extant CD studies may not support the conclusions that have been reported in the literature. Future research should use methods that lead to correct interpretations of CD effects.

This study aims to examine the impact of home–host country distance on the cross-border mergers and acquisitions performance.

The results of this study are based on a final sample of 483 completed cross-border deals involving BRICS nation acquirers and targets spread across a set of 27 nations. While controlling for prior experience, among other factors, the impact of nine institutional distance dimensions on deal performance is examined. Cumulative abnormal returns calculated over the select event windows are used as a measure of deal performance.

The results of this study validate the explanatory power of cross-country distance and exhibit that financial and cultural distance exert a negative influence on deal performance, whereas political and global connectedness distance positively impacts performance. Interestingly, geographic distance is not found to be related to performance outcomes.

The results of this study caution against possible aggregation of the cross-country distance measure and point towards the need to acknowledge and analyse the multi-dimensional nature of distance.

The results of this study are expected to aid managers in devising internationalisation strategies and target selection, maximising their performance and shareholder wealth.

This study contributes to the knowledge of internationalisation and cross-country distance. It presents as one of the first to investigate the impact of institutional distance on deal performance using a substantially large multi-country emerging market data set.

This study extends the budgetary participation–performance/cultural effects literature by isolating and examining the moderating effect of one cultural dimension, power distance, on the budgetary participation–performance relationship. Isolating the impact of power distance is important to this literature because of the fact that participative budgeting remains a possibly underutilized management tool in high power distance countries.

We regroup our multinational sample of managers by power distance level, and employ multigroup structural equation modeling (SEM) and a set of nonparametric bootstrap tests to triangulate our findings.

We find that the majority of our managers from three high power distance countries (Mexico, Korea, and China) score in the lower half of the power distance scale, that there is significant correlation between participation and performance in both the high and low power distance subsamples, but that the mechanisms connecting participation to performance are quite different. While job satisfaction plays a role in connecting budgetary participation and performance among low power distance managers, job relevant information alone connects budgetary participation and performance among their high power distance counterparts.

The primary contribution of our work is that we not only demonstrate that budget participation can improve the performance of subordinate managers in high power distance cultures, but also provide evidence of how and why this is plausible. First managers may not share the same high power distance tendencies of their countrymen, and second, the communication aspect of budget participation appears to be more important for increased performance among those with high power distance tendencies.

Distance is the core concept in tourism. However, previous studies focused on single distance dimensions and generated contradictory findings due to omitted variable biases. This paper aims to introduce the well-established CAGE (cultural, administrative, geographical, and economic) distance framework into international tourism research to measure the comprehensive distance and explore its impact on inbound tourist satisfaction.

The comprehensive distance was calculated based on the Mahalanobis formula. Combining tourist review data from TripAdvisor, this study used ordinary least square regressions to explore the influence of the comprehensive distance on inbound tourist satisfaction and the mediating role of inbound tourist emotion.

Results show that CAGE distance effectively describes the dynamic change in distance. The comprehensive distance also positively impacts tourist satisfaction, and tourist emotion plays a mediating role in this impact.

This paper advances knowledge about distance in international tourism by introducing the CAGE distance framework and addresses the contradictory findings with specific distance dimensions by the comprehensive distance.

距离是旅游的核心概念。然而, 以前的研究集中在单一的距离维度上, 并且由于遗漏变量偏差而产生了相互矛盾的结果。 本文旨在将成熟的 CAGE 距离框架引入国际旅游研究中, 以衡量综合距离并探讨其对入境游客满意度的影响。

综合距离根据马氏距离公式计算。 结合TripAdvisor网站的游客评论数据, 采用普通最小二乘（OLS）回归分析综合距离对入境游客满意度的影响以及入境游客情绪的中介作用。

结果表明, CAGE距离有效地描述了距离的动态变化。 综合距离也正向影响游客满意度, 游客情绪在此影响中起中介作用。

本文通过引入 CAGE 距离框架来提升国际旅游中的距离知识。 本研究还通过综合距离解决了特定距离维度的矛盾发现。

La distancia es el concepto central en el turismo. Sin embargo, estudios previos se han centrado en dimensiones de una sola distancia, generando resultados contradictorios debido a los sesgos por la omisión de variables. Este trabajo tiene como objetivo introducir el marco de distancia CAGE, establecido en la investigación turística internacional, con la intención de medir la distancia integral y explorar su impacto en la satisfacción del turista receptor.

La distancia integral se calculó con base en la fórmula de Mahalanobis. Combinando los datos de reseñas turísticas de TripAdvisor, se utilizaron regresiones de mínimos cuadrados ordinarios (OLS) para explorar la influencia de la distancia integral en la satisfacción del turista receptor y el papel mediador de la emoción del turista receptor.

Los resultados muestran que el modelo CAGE describe el cambio dinámico en la distancia de una forma efectiva. La distancia integral también impacta positivamente en la satisfacción del turista, y la emoción del turista juega un papel mediador en este impacto.

Este documento avanza en el conocimiento sobre la distancia en el turismo internacional mediante la introducción del marco de distancia CAGE. Además, aborda resultados contradictorios con las dimensiones de distancia específicas mediante la distancia integral.

The purpose of this paper is to explain the difference of national intellectual capital from the perspective of national culture and to illustrate how national leaders or policy-makers increase their country’s national intellectual capital.

The study conducts a descriptive analysis combining the research outcome of Lin and Edvinsson’s (2011) national intellectual capital with Hofstede’s (2001) national culture. The research findings and results of these two studies were compared before running a t-test to determine whether countries with relatively high national intellectual capital have a higher level of certain national culture.

Based on the matching data of 26 countries, the study proposed that countries with certain national culture possess lower intellectual capital. Countries with high intellectual capital tend to exhibit a common culture of low power distance, weak uncertainty avoidance, and individualism.

The study suggests that for a country to enhance its overall intellectual capital, it should strive for a culture of equality, freedom and safety, and an active competitive environment, while avoiding social class distance in order to eliminate insecurity. The study proposes some suggestions to advance the countries’ national intellectual capital. In addition to admit the weakness of their intellectual capital due to cultural reasons, these countries could go a step further to increase their own national intellectual capital by increasing or enhancing certain national cultures if possible.

The study compares national intellectual capital and national culture and finds the relationship between these two sets of constructs. This study proves that national culture not only influences the strategies or behaviors of business level but also the competitiveness of national levels.