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While multinational companies develop meta-level policies to address grand sustainability challenges and CEOs are increasingly showing their social activism, the hard work of concretely defending communities’ rights and the environment from business exploitation is often left to powerless individuals, known as human rights defenders (here defenders), who face severe risks for their advocacy. According to some statistics, between 2015 and 2022, defenders worldwide have been subject to over 4,000 attacks, including killings, tortures, and intimidation. In this chapter, the authors discuss the relevance of defenders to the promotion of the sustainable development goal (SDG) agenda and develop a conceptual model to predict CEOs’ reactions to defenders.

We develop an extension of the Traditional Deterrence Game to examine the interaction between international and domestic sources of uncertainty as these sources influence the behavior of Challengers and Defenders. The extension involves incorporating a third and a fourth domestic player, named Assassin ♯1 and Assassin ♯2. Assassin ♯1 reacts to Challenger's decision to capitulate to Defender, and Assassin ♯2 reacts to Defender's decision to capitulate to Challenger. From the perspective of Challenger and Defender, Assassin ♯1 and Assassin ♯2 are lotteries that involve a probability of being punished, and a complementary probability of not being punished, for the decisions to capitulate to the adversary, respectively, in the international game. We employ the two-sided incomplete information version of the game wherein Challenger is uncertain about Defender's type and the behavior of Assassin ♯1, and Defender is uncertain about Challenger's type and the behavior of Assassin ♯2.

The model provides an account of the trade-off between domestic and international conflicts generally, and specifies the conditions under which Challenger and/or Defender is advantaged in the international game with the presence of a domestic constraint in the form of Assassin ♯1 or Assassin ♯2. The model generates two striking results in particular. First, Assassin ♯1 can influence the behavior of some Challengers, whereas Assassin ♯2 can determine the behavior of some Defenders. Second, the Challengers who ultimately capitulate are more prone to initiate conflict, in the first place, than are the Challengers who will not capitulate.

The purpose of this paper is to investigate the linkages among different employee benefits, business strategies and organizational cultures. The manufacturing and service sectors in the conglomerate industry are investigated.

Analysis of variance (ANOVA) are used for the statistical verification of the hypotheses, whereas Levene’s test and Wilk–Shapiro tests are conducted to verify the assumptions of ANOVA.

The results reported indicate that the social class benefits (SCB) and long-term benefits (LTB) are high in defenders as compared to prospectors and innovators, whereas group incentive schemes (GIS) are lower in the defender, and power distance and uncertainty avoidance are higher in the defender as compared to prospector and innovator.

This paper highlights that if mismatch among the employee benefits, strategy and culture occurs, then it becomes a hurdle to the good performance of organization and employee. The proposed model focuses on the effective coherence among the strategy, culture and benefits for leveraging the business processes. This research along with enriching the already existing literature would also act as a guidelines to practitioners implementing organizational change and development and to the academicians for extending the research in this area.

It has been established in the study that employee benefits (SCB, LTB, GIS and result-oriented benefits) are completely different for innovators, defenders and prospectors for conglomerate firms.

The purpose of this paper is to focus on resource allocation and information disclosure policy for defending multiple targets against intentional attacks. The intentional attacks, like terrorism events, probably cause great losses and fatalities. Attackers and defenders usually make decisions based on incomplete information. Adaptive attacking and defending strategies are considered, to study how both sides make more effective decisions according to previous fights.

A stochastic game‐theoretic approach is proposed for modeling attacker‐defender conflicts. Attackers and defenders are supposed both to be strategic decision makers and partially aware of adversary's information. Adaptive strategies are compared with different inflexible strategies in a fortification‐patrol problem, where the fortification affects the security vulnerability of targets and the patrol indicates the defensive signal.

The result shows that the intentional risk would be elevated by adaptive attack strategies. An inflexible defending strategy probably fails when facing uncertainties of adversary. It is shown that the optimal response of defenders is to adjust defending strategies by learning from previous games and assessing behaviors of adversaries to minimize the expected loss.

This paper explores how adaptive strategies affect attacker‐defender conflicts. The key issue is defense allocation and information disclosure policy for mitigation of intentional threats. Attackers and defenders can adjust their strategies by learning from previous fights, and the strategic adjustment of both sides may be asynchronous.

The purpose of this paper is to investigate the disciplinary measures that teachers apply to student participants in violent altercations and how protestations of self-defense and a violent record affect the measures taken.

Israeli teachers (326) were shown fictional vignettes that recounted violent conflicts between students and were asked whether and how they would punish them. The vignettes portrayed students in three roles: aggressor, confirmed self-defender, and unproven self-defender.

Confirmed self-defenders are much more leniently disciplined than unproven self-defenders and aggressors. Unproven self-defenders are disciplined almost as severely as aggressors. A violent record results in much more severe punishment of unproven self-defenders and aggressors but has only a slight upward effect on the disciplining of confirmed self-defenders.

The study reveals a difficulty in complying with a zero-tolerance approach to school violence because it collides with the right to self-defense. The intensity of discipline applied to self-defenders appears to depend on their ability to “dig up” witnesses to prove their case. Therefore, socially isolated self-defenders may be punished severely whereas social accepted ones would not.

The results may enhance the understanding of arbitrators’ decisions in conflicts that defy attempts to determine “who started it.” They break new ground by describing the disciplinary measures taken against different role-players in fracases and are immensely important for understanding peacemaking measures in school and the “real world.”

This study aims to examine the contingent fit between business strategies and environmental uncertainty and its effect on corporate tax avoidance.

This study uses a two-stage linear regression method comprising multinomial logistic regression and panel data regression.

This study finds that under highly uncertain conditions, the contingent fit of prospector strategy is higher than the contingent fit of other two strategies, i.e. defender and analyzer strategy. The study fails, however, to demonstrate that under highly uncertain conditions, this study finds that under highly uncertain conditions the contingent fit of a “prospector” strategy is higher than for “defender” and “analyzer” strategies. The study fails, however, to demonstrate that under highly uncertain conditions the contingent fit of a defender strategy is higher than that of an analyzer strategy. The study also finds that the contingent fit between prospector strategy and environmental uncertainty has a positive effect on tax avoidance, and this effect is higher than for the misfit strategies. Moreover, in such environments the fit level of a defender strategy has a negative effect on tax avoidance while environmental uncertainty has a positive effect on tax avoidance.

This study estimated competition uncertainty using the Herfindahl index to measure competitive intensity in an industry. However, only the data from public listed companies was used due to a lack of data availability for non-public companies. Consequently, further study is recommended to include the total number of companies within an industry as a proxy of competitive intensity.

The results implied that managers, not only in Indonesia but also in other countries as well, specifically emerging countries (generally the environmental uncertainty in emerging countries is high) should consider the contingent factors when making business strategy decisions. Managers must be aware of the contingent fit with environmental uncertainty, and therefore, must assess external conditions prudently. Furthermore, the results of this study showed that managers should pay more attention to the effects of their decisions on corporate tax avoidance, while aligning their business strategy decisions with corporate tax planning strategy to obtain an optimal outcome for the company.

The Directorate General of Taxes and Board of Fiscal Policy, as regulators, need to comprehend environmental uncertainty to issue various policies that can ease the burden of the taxpayer to remain in business, particularly during the turbulence environment so that can prevent the companies doing illegal practices and will eventually reduce the number of tax avoidance.

This study developed alternative measure of tax avoidance, which is tax avoidance latent variable score (TAXLVS). The TAXLVS was derived from confirmatory factor analysis of previous existing tax avoidance measurements. This study is also the first that analyzes the effect of business strategy on tax avoidance using contingency approach.

The purpose of this paper is to present a competitive defender‐attacker risk model that assumes a dual exponential relationship between defender (C_i) and attacker (A_i) resource allocation: v_i(A_i,C_i)=e^−α_ic_i−e^{−α_iC_i−γ_iA_i}.

Network risk is defined in terms of degree sequence, g, node/link damage, d, and probability of failure, v: R=∑g_iv_id_i. The paper finds the optimal allocation of resources (A_i, C_i) that minimizes R from the defender's point of view, and maximizes R from the attacker's point of view.

The effectiveness of the optimal min‐max strategy is compared with three allocation strategies: random, non‐network, and network. It is shown that total network risk is minimized by the non‐network strategy, because this strategy considers damage values and ignores network topology in the definition of risk.

The method is illustrated by applying it to critical infrastructure – a hypothetical water‐and‐power network.

This study aims to analyze the effect of online hotel reviews on the relationship between defender and prospector strategies and management control system (MCS) design.

To conduct the study, this paper administered a questionnaire to large Brazilian hotels and analyzed data from 204 hotels using structural equation modeling and fuzzy logic.

The main results show that online hotel reviews have a positive and significant effect on the relationship between prospector strategy and personnel and action control. In contrast, online reviews have a negative effect on the relationship between defender strategy and personnel, action and results controls. Thus, it is confirmed that online reviews change the relationship between strategy and MCS design.

The results show that online reviews play an important role in the decisions of hotel managers regarding MCS design. Customer demand evaluations, which are regularly available online on analysis websites, help managers adapt the MCS design, ensuring that their actions are aligned with the adopted strategy. This study adds to previous studies by showing that hotel managers use the information from customer evaluations to improve their performance.

The management literature based on the contingency theory indicates that strategy is a variable that affects MCS design. This study extends this discussion by indicating that online reviews, specifically in the hotel industry, can also be a determining factor in defining management controls. In addition, this paper points out that OHR impacts differently, depending on the strategy used and the type of management control.

Nowadays, supply chain integration (SCI) is considered as an enabler of competitive firm performance. It has three important dimensions: internal, supplier and customer integration. Understanding the interaction between these dimensions and organisational strategy would pave the way for effective implementation of SCI. The famous Miles et al. (1978) strategy typology classifies firms into four strategy types: defenders, prospectors, analysers and reactors. The purpose of this paper is to explore the impact of the core company’s product-market innovation strategy on the dimensions of SCI, and to investigate the comparative strength of each dimension of SCI in defenders and prospectors.

Primary data were collected through an online survey of 112 firms in 24 countries across Africa, Asia, Europe and North America. Direct and mediated relationships were assessed by conducting structural equation modelling on the dimensions of SCI and product-market innovation strategy variables. Cluster analysis was conducted on organisational strategy variables to group the firms into different strategy types. Next, a one-way analysis of variance was applied to assess the impact of organisational strategy on each dimension of the SCI. Finally, a post hoc analysis was conducted to compare the strength of each dimension of the SCI against the different strategy types.

The results indicate that internal integration (II) mediates the positive effects of the core company’s product-market innovation strategy on supplier and customer integration. Furthermore, the results indicate that prospectors have stronger internal, supplier and customer integration as compared to defenders.

This study had two main limitations. One limitation is the lack of consideration of possible differences in the strengths of the investigated relationships across different geographical locations and cultures. The second limitation is the inability of the cross-sectional research design to capture the dynamics in the process of adopting SCI and organisational strategy.

The present study highlights to executives the need for understanding the implications of specific strategies on the SC linkages and relationships that are required to implement those strategies. Thus, it could serve as a preliminary clue in decision-making for establishing integrated SC that is compatible with the organisational strategy. Furthermore, it could serve as a guidance to managers in steering their firms in the organisational adaptive cycle, by indicating that the implementation of product-market innovation strategy requires adopting strong SCI, and by highlighting the importance of adopting II prior to external integration.

This paper tests relationships that explain how the core company’s strategy influences each dimension of SCI.

This paper aims to examine optimal decisions for information security investments for a firm in a fuzzy environment. Under both sequential and simultaneous attack scenarios, optimal investment of firm, optimal efforts of attackers and their economic utilities are determined.

Throughout the analysis, a single firm and two attackers for a “firm as a leader” in a sequential game setting and “firm versus attackers” in a simultaneous game setting are considered. While the firm makes investments to secure its information assets, the attackers spend their efforts to launch breaches.

It is observed that the firm needs to invest more when it announces its security investment decisions ahead of attacks. In contrast, the firm can invest relatively less when all agents are unaware of each other’s choices in advance. Further, the study reveals that attackers need to exert higher effort when no agent enjoys the privilege of being a leader.

In a novel approach, inherent system vulnerability of the firm, financial benefit of attackers from the breach and monetary loss suffered by the firm are considered, as fuzzy variables in the well-recognized Gordon – Loeb breach function, with the help of fuzzy expectation operator.

This study reports that the optimal breach effort exerted by each attacker is proportional to its obtained economic benefit for both sequential and simultaneous attack scenarios. A set of numerical experiments and sensitivity analyzes complement the analytical modeling.

In a novel approach, inherent system vulnerability of the firm, financial benefit of attackers from the breach and monetary loss suffered by the firm are considered, as fuzzy variables in the well-recognized Gordon – Loeb breach function, with the help of fuzzy expectation operator.