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The purpose of this research is to empirically examine the impact of selecting entrepreneurial framework conditions on the success of entrepreneurs in a conflict zone. The study was conducted in Kashmir, which is a fitting conflict context. The study undertaken responds to the call by multiple authors to substantiate the entrepreneurship literature with empirical evidence from conflict-affected areas. The authors argue that better entrepreneurial framework conditions will enhance entrepreneurial success in conflict zones. This research work is important because it will add to our understanding of the influences of the entrepreneurial ecosystem on entrepreneurs who pursue an entrepreneurial career in conflict zones. This research will add to the existing body of knowledge, which seemingly lacks evidence from conflict zones. Furthermore, this research is important in the Kashmir context because this research will provide insights to stakeholders such as entrepreneurs, government agencies, entrepreneurship development agencies and NGOs, etc.

The authors surveyed 400 entrepreneurs in the manufacturing, services and retail sectors in Kashmir through a questionnaire. The self-reported responses were used for assessment of entrepreneurial framework conditions and financial and non-financial performance. The data were analysed through the partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM) to test the hypothesised relationships. The results were considerable.

The authors found that most Kashmiri entrepreneurs do not find the entrepreneurial framework conditions supportive of their business. Upon testing the hypothesis, they found a significant and positive impact of entrepreneurial finance, government policies and cultural and social norms on entrepreneurial success. The common belief that ease in market dynamics would positively impact success was negated in this case. They found a significant and negative impact of market dynamics on success. Furthermore, the physical, commercial and professional infrastructure and services showed insignificant results.

This research provides insights about the requirements of entrepreneurial framework conditions in a conflict zone for achieving successful results. The current study acknowledges the call of researchers to carry out quantitative studies in conflict zones.

The findings of this research might prove to be beneficial to the entrepreneurs, policymakers, government agencies and other stakeholders. If taken into consideration while formulating the policies in favour of entrepreneurs in a conflict zone, the findings of this research are an added resource. The current research might be valuable to the Government of Kashmir in recognising the perception of entrepreneurs towards the initiatives or the policies drafted in the past.

As per the knowledge of researchers, no such study has been conducted in Kashmir vis-a-vis the variables studied. The study is original in terms of analysing the impact of the environment on the success of entrepreneurs in a conflict zone in Kashmir.

Purpose: The chapter explains how entrepreneurship can generate either subsistence, destructive, or peace-positive outcomes in the conflict zones of the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region. Institutional arrangements are examined for how they can advance the latter.

Methodology/approach: Literatures from conflict resolution, development, economics, corporate social responsibility, entrepreneurship, and psychology are drawn on to frame the multiple roles of entrepreneurs in conflict zones, and understand the institutional arrangements that support peace-positive entrepreneurship.

Findings: The chapter indicates that formalization plays a major role in promoting peace-positive entrepreneurship while deterring destructive entrepreneurship. Conflict zone institutional arrangements that reestablish trust, can uphold the rule of law, and incentivize entrepreneurial activity aid in the formalization process. Special attention is paid to the inclusive nature of these activities, with the need to heal religious, tribal, and sectarian divides in the region, and promote the inclusion of all societal actors (namely, minorities and women) to engage in enterprising activities.

Social implications: The chapter outlines the importance for both foreign donors and local actors to understand the determinant role of institutions in conflict zone entrepreneurial ecosystems, promoting the role of institutional reform over and above the micro-level activity currently grabbing attention in the region.

Originality/value of the chapter: The chapter contrasts the singular narrative often presented on the positive role of conflict zone entrepreneurship in the informal sector, offering a paradoxical view on the topic, and arguing for formalization and institutional reform to remain aspirational among researchers and practitioners who commonly accept and promote the role of the informal sector in conflict zones.

This study aims to uses biosocial gender theory to describe successful entrepreneurial behavior in conflict zones. Specifically, the authors investigate how the reliance on agentic (assertive, individual focused) behavior and communal (facilitative and friendly) behavior lead to differential outcomes depending on the physical gender of the entrepreneur exhibiting the behavior.

The authors developed a conceptual framework based on extant literature. To test the framework, the authors gathered survey data from Iraqi-Kurdish entrepreneurs who have been living in a state of war since the late 1980s and use a novel analytical method to deal with the limitations inherent in gathering survey data in conflict zones. Qualitative data is presented to generate a better understanding of the survey results.

The findings indicate females who are successful in taking on the traditional male role of entrepreneur in conflict zones engage in lower levels of agentic behavior compared to their male counterparts. Successful entrepreneurs (male and female) rely extensively on communal behavior in their ventures. When it comes to community development, male entrepreneurs engaging in agentic behavior, seem to mentor aspiring entrepreneurs more than females. Females relying on communal behavior engage in more mentoring of aspiring entrepreneurs than males.

An understanding of the unique gender dynamics underlying entrepreneurial behavior in conflict zones remains incomplete. The study introduces evidence that gender differences, as well as social factors, combine with the unique characteristics of conflict zones resulting in different behavioral paths to entrepreneurial success. The analytical method introduces some statistical tools to scholars attempting to understand the unique conflict zone context. As such, the study provides guidance for scholars working in this context, as well as NGO’s and other institutions seeking to train entrepreneurs and improve economic conditions in conflict zones.

The purpose of this paper is to explore how entrepreneurship education (EE) interacts with knowledge transfer and entrepreneurial behaviour in a conflict Sub-Saharan African context.

In-depth telephone interviews of 20 participants who benefited from EE knowledge transfer were used to document and analyse the effect of EE on their behaviours as micro-entrepreneurs in a conflict zone.

These participants exhibited rare forms of innovative behaviour, through their business skills, gained from their involvement in EE. In relation to the effect of the conflict on their entrepreneurial behaviours, it emerged that the conflict was not the major barrier to entrepreneurial intentions, it however affected how they made strategic decisions about downsizing, advertising and future business plans. Consequently, these decisions altered at different junctures because of the conflict and, therefore, defined their coping strategies.

The paper advocates a policy shift towards a more collaborative sub-regional approach to tackling the underlying causes of conflict in Sub-Saharan Africa through investment in EE strategies as a spur to economic development. Central to this are a priori assumptions about economically disadvantaged populations and their symbiotic relationship with conflict, a phenomenon frequently exploited by armed groups with deviant agenda. Thus, access to employment opportunities could benefit disadvantaged populations, thereby plays a decisive role in conflict mitigation.

The paper provides empirical analysis integrating EE with knowledge transfer and entrepreneurial behaviour in a conflict Sub-Saharan African context. In this way, novel insights are provided that contribute to current efforts aimed at developing a robust theoretical and conceptual foundation for EE domain.

This paper aims to explore the extent to which women’s entrepreneurship in conflict zones is an influential catalyst for liberalising traditionally conservative gender norms. This purpose is achieved by focussing on women entrepreneurs in Gaza and how they actively renegotiate their multiple gender roles and navigate the social order through entrepreneurship.

This paper adopts the interpretivist approach where individual in-depth interviews were conducted with 16 Palestinian women entrepreneurs operating in Gaza.

The findings demonstrate that the context of conflict itself and its impact on gender norms is a prime motivator for women to engage in entrepreneurial ventures. Some gender roles were constraining and other enabling women to initiate and sustain their ventures to contribute to their families’ well-being. In spite of the fact that the conflict context and entrepreneurship have contributed to enhancing the agency of women and their ability to navigate the conflict and its consequences, the gendered practices and assumptions are still used as guidance for legitimising women’s entrepreneurship.

This paper contributes to the gender and entrepreneurship literature by giving greater visibility to women entrepreneurs operating in conflict zones, which remain under researched. This paper also demonstrates how prolonged conflict instigates social and economic changes that can empower women entrepreneurs while simultaneously reinforcing gendered norms.

This paper aims to examine the emergence of digital entrepreneurship in a conflict environment to explore the emancipatory potential of digital technology in a rare context. The purpose of this paper is to take a micro-level investigation of digital entrepreneurs operating in a violent in-conflict area.

The analysis is based on multiple case studies from a violent conflict zone in India. This study used interview data from 10 digital entrepreneurs from the state of Jammu and Kashmir. Field data was collected with progressive rounds of interviews with the entrepreneurs, supplemented by published statistics and secondary data sources, and analysis was done with the help of qualitative data analysis software NVivo.

The context directed entrepreneurial behaviour and the motivation to start digital ventures. Entrepreneurs realized the potential of technology but its successful use was contingent upon their social positionalities. The digital entrepreneurial engagement of the entrepreneurs is classified into four dimensions: social digital entrepreneurship; business entrepreneurship; knowledge entrepreneurship; and institutional entrepreneurship.

The findings of the study contribute to the digital entrepreneurship literature by illustrating how a rare context influences venturing into technology sectors. The study advances the creative technology use, these in-conflict entrepreneurs with their existing resources maneuvered to create socially ingrained digital ventures. The study provides evidence to “conditional emancipation” attributable to digital entrepreneurship owing to the conflictual context in question.

The purpose of this paper is to explore the association between intellectual capital (IC) and resilience in torn societies while proposing an integrative framework. Due to adversities faced by entrepreneurs in such contexts, an understanding of the role of resilience along with IC has become crucial for businesses to succeed and survive.

This study takes an in-depth look at the three components of IC – human, organizational and external capital and their association with resilience. In order to do so, a qualitative study on 17 Iraqi micro, small and medium enterprises (MSMEs) was conducted using data collected through semi-structured interviews with the founders. The interviews were translated and coded by native speakers.

The results suggest that IC and resilience are interrelated concepts where IC components contribute to the resilience capabilities of entrepreneurs to survive and continue their businesses during turbulent times.

Implications for managers and policymakers are presented; in brief, strategies and policies are required to support entrepreneurial success in the Iraqi context.

The study contributes to the literature on IC for entrepreneurs. So far, few studies have dealt with the association between IC and resilience, and less so in torn societies. This paper contributes to research on enterprise development and survival under conflict zones; it highlights some of the factors that could form resilience of a MSME in the face of uncertainty; and it contributes to the literature on IC as it helps us understand certain capacities that build up and/or support MSME resilience in such a context.

This study aims to analyze the establishment of sustainable microfranchises by women victims of the conflict (WVC) entrepreneurs who suffered the consequences and impacts of the longest-running internal conflict in the Americas. Additionally, this research seeks to underscore the transformative role of women entrepreneurs-for-peace (WE4P) in a post-peace agreement society.

This study seeks to contribute to theory building on sustainable business models (SBMs) at the base of the pyramid (BoP) theory from a single case study of the Colombian microfranchise TechOil. The theoretical sampling process guided the selection of data sources, which include semi-structured interviews, company and microfranchise donors’ reports, websites and external expert interviews to support the findings. The research adopts a framework of intro-entrepreneurship characteristics, ambiance, organization and sustainability.

TechOil offers a valuable case study for understanding how the phenomenon of microfranchise as an SBM spills over the BoP and promotes gender equality. The authors also developed a new SBM typology by extending the theory inductively.

The paper highlights WE4P and introduces microfranchises as a new SBM typology, offering insights into policy, practice and societal transformation in post-peace agreement zones.

The issue of WVC entrepreneurs in post-peace agreement settings remains under-reviewed and under-theorized. This study’s originality lies in introducing microfranchises as a new SBM typology, emphasizing the importance of gender equality and women’s roles in sustainable development and addressing the overlooked link between entrepreneurship and peace, contributing to global applicability.

Este estudio tiene como objetivo analizar el establecimiento de microfranquicias sostenibles por parte de emprendedoras Víctimas del Conflicto (WVC, por sus siglas en inglés) que sufrieron las consecuencias e impactos del conflicto interno más largo en América. Además, esta investigación busca resaltar el papel transformador de las mujeres emprendedoras por la paz (WE4P) en una sociedad posterior a un acuerdo de paz.

Este estudio busca contribuir a la construcción de teoría sobre modelos de negocios sostenibles - SBM según la teoría de la Base de la Pirámide - BoP a partir de un estudio de caso único de la microfranquicia colombiana TechOil. El proceso de muestreo teórico guió la selección de fuentes de datos, que incluyen entrevistas semiestructuradas, informes de la empresa y donantes de microfranquicias, sitios web y entrevistas con expertos externos para respaldar los hallazgos. La investigación adopta un marco de características introemprendedoras, ambiente, organización y sostenibilidad.

TechOil ofrece un valioso estudio de caso para comprender cómo el fenómeno de la microfranquicia como SBM se extiende más allá de la BoP y promueve la igualdad de género. Los autores también desarrollaron una nueva tipología de SBM al extender la teoría de manera inductiva.

El artículo destaca a las WE4P e introduce las microfranquicias como una nueva tipología de SBM, ofreciendo ideas sobre política, práctica y transformación social en zonas posteriores a un acuerdo de paz.

El tema de las emprendedoras WVC en contextos posteriores a un acuerdo de paz sigue siendo poco estudiado y teorizado. La originalidad de este artículo radica en introducir las microfranquicias como una nueva tipología de SBM, enfatizando la importancia de la igualdad de género y el papel de las mujeres en el desarrollo sostenible, y abordando el vínculo pasado por alto entre el emprendimiento y la paz, contribuyendo a la aplicabilidad global.

Este estudo tem como objetivo analisar o estabelecimento de microfranquias sustentáveis por empreendedoras Vítimas do Conflito (WVC) que sofreram as consequências e impactos do conflito interno mais longo das Américas. Além disso, esta pesquisa busca destacar o papel transformador das mulheres empreendedoras pela paz (WE4P) em uma sociedade pós-acordo de paz.

Este estudo busca contribuir para a construção de teoria sobre modelos de negócios sustentáveis - SBM segundo a teoria da Base da Pirâmide - BoP a partir de um estudo de caso único da microfranquia colombiana TechOil. O processo de amostragem teórica orientou a seleção de fontes de dados, que incluem entrevistas semiestruturadas, relatórios da empresa e doadores de microfranquias, sites e entrevistas com especialistas externos para respaldar os achados. A pesquisa adota um quadro de características introempreendedoras, ambiente, organização e sustentabilidade.

A TechOil oferece um valioso estudo de caso para entender como o fenômeno da microfranquia como SBM se estende além da BoP e promove a igualdade de gênero. Os autores também desenvolveram uma nova tipologia de SBM ao estender a teoria de forma indutiva.

O artigo destaca as WE4P e introduz as microfranquias como uma nova tipologia de SBM, oferecendo insights sobre política, prática e transformação social em zonas pós-acordo de paz.

O tema das empreendedoras WVC em contextos pós-acordo de paz ainda é pouco estudado e pouco teorizado. A originalidade deste artigo reside em introduzir as microfranquias como uma nova tipologia de SBM, enfatizando a importância da igualdade de gênero e o papel das mulheres no desenvolvimento sustentável, e abordando o elo negligenciado entre empreendedorismo e paz, contribuindo para a aplicabilidade global.

The purpose of this paper is to examine how a new entrepreneurship education (EE) intervention offered at conflict-ridden Maiduguri, Nigeria, is having transformative impacts through new venture creation and poverty reduction.

The paper adopts a single case study approach, drawing from in-depth interviews of participants, experts, and facilitators of the entrepreneurship training, in addition to relevant memos and documents.

The findings indicate that the EE programme is, by generating awareness and facilitating skill development, contributing to new venture creation, poverty reduction, and positive change in mindset. However, the impact is limited by inadequate support through venture capital and limited facilities for business incubation.

This study is limited in its focus on EE provided for university undergraduates and graduates. Further research should explore interventions aimed at less-educated youth in the region, and in other conflict contexts.

The study suggests that EE facilitates youth empowerment through venture creation, in the process transforming them from aggrieved outsiders to active stakeholders in societal peace and national prosperity.

The nascent theory of transformative entrepreneuring identifies poverty reduction and conflict resolution as the main mechanisms. This paper focuses on how EE triggers new venture creation, which in turn contributes to poverty reduction and overall change in mindset of otherwise unemployed and aggrieved youths.