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This paper aims to examine the planning policy and legal framework governing the creation and operation of urban agriculture in Sydney, Australia’s global city. All levels of urban agriculture are considered – from domestic and small community gardens to large agribusiness – as all make an important contribution to agricultural production in an urban context.

Using the Australian State of New South Wales and its capital Sydney, as a focus, the study examines the recent trend of the recognition and re-establishment of agriculture as a desired land use in cities. Three examples are selected for closer scrutiny – Horsley Park Urban Agriculture Precinct, located in the Western Sydney Parklands; City of Sydney’s City Farm, located in the inner suburb of St Peters; and the Western Sydney Aerotropolis Agribusiness Precinct, located at a new airport on the fringe of Sydney.

As more city-dwellers embrace urban food production and as city authorities seek to encourage and facilitate farming activities, it is clear that regulatory structures which allow it to happen should be incorporated into urban planning legislation at (in the Australian context) state government level. If cities want to encourage urban agriculture, planning legislation needs to be part of the broader legal framework for enabling it to germinate and thrive.

This paper explores the emergence of two new types of urban agriculture: first, the multi-functional, small-scale urban farming operation, situated conceptually between a community garden and a full-scale commercial agricultural enterprise, and located spatially in the midst of built-up urban form; and second, the intensive, high tech export-oriented model exemplified by the Aerotropolis Agribusiness Precinct.

Urban farming is becoming more common in the USA, as food-based entrepreneurs seek to make money farming in the city. Yet many urban farms are concerned with other factors in addition to food production, and thus have incorporated social goals into their missions. The purpose of this paper is to identify the social missions of urban farms in the USA, their extent, and explores differences and similarities among farms with varying missions.

The authors use primary data collected from a 2012 national survey of urban farmers in the USA. In total, 35 questions, covering the 2012 farm year, targeted production and marketing practices, risks and challenges, information and technical assistance needs, farm size and location, age of primary farmer, and farm characteristics. A multinomial logistic model was used to analyze the social missions of urban farms in the sample.

The authors find that food production is an essential part of the mission for all urban farms. Some farms have social missions, as well, which the survey results indicate are related to food security, education, and community building. The authors find that all urban farms, regardless of their mission, are relatively small and face similar challenges in terms of providing the primary farmer with a living. Farms with explicit social missions, relative to those with a strict market orientation, donate a higher share of food from their farm and are less likely to own farmland. Urban farms located in with lower median income are more likely to have social goals related to building community or improving security food security.

Urban agriculture is becoming more prevalent in many developed nations. At the same time, social entrepreneurship is gaining traction. Given the limited ability of urban farms in terms of food production, the social mission of urban farms arises as a possible explanation for the recent growth. This paper provides insight into a new phenomenon, and uses new data to provide insight into size, types of farms, and farmer well-being and address the social missions of urban farms in the USA.

Social Entrepreneurship, Organizational Behavior.

This case is suitable to be used in advanced undergraduate and MBA/MSc level.

This case teaches about green organization, its opportunity, challenges, and attitude toward sustainable agriculture. The Babylon Vertical Farms (BVF) is an agricultural and technological company that grew high-quality hydroponic vegetables and herbs with minimum use of sunlight, soil, and pesticides. BVF used recycled water through reverse osmosis process with the target to decrease cultivated time to less than six hours, when compared to the typical 18 hours, apart from minimizing water usage up to 90%. Knowing its potential, Stuart Thomas, the founder and his team planned to increase the farm production to 2,000–3,000 kg a month from 1,000 kg a month. The farm required RM150,000 to acquire resources and to extend its farm infrastructure. Stuart and his team had to make feasible and practical decision in gaining their funds to execute the business to be one that is sustainable and green. As a social entrepreneur, Stuart also wanted to address poverty-related hunger. A group of investors was ready to invest and asked for 30% equity. Stuart was tempted to take the offer. If he rejected the offer, the farm could lose the opportunity to scale-up its operation. At the same time, if he accepted the offer, he might lose control over the business one day.

The learning outcomes are as follows:

• to expose students to the various forms of urban farming that a social entrepreneur can venture into;

• to expose students to the benefits of green business;

• to evaluate potential opportunities and threats of a green organization using SWOT analysis; and

• to recommend a possible strategy to build a sustainable agriculture farm that is economically viable, environmentally sound, and socially responsible.

to expose students to the various forms of urban farming that a social entrepreneur can venture into;

to expose students to the benefits of green business;

to evaluate potential opportunities and threats of a green organization using SWOT analysis; and

to recommend a possible strategy to build a sustainable agriculture farm that is economically viable, environmentally sound, and socially responsible.

Applying concepts from the theory of complex adaptive systems, we investigated the emergence over time of a local foods system that embodies values of traditional agriculture and the preservation of the earth and its biodiversity, community, and equitable access to food. The purpose was to learn, from this place-based transformation, the process of self-organization that can underpin a transition from an unsustainable food system primarily based on values of wealth creation to one where resources are used in a sustainable manner.

The local foods system of Northeast Ohio was examined through interviews with key agents in the system at three points in time ranging from 2007 to 2016, and through the collection of archival data chronicling various aspects of the system. Qualitative data were coded and analyzed in a multi-dimensional manner that focused on variation and interaction (exchange of resources) of agents through time.

The system has evolved to be increasingly complex both in numbers and kinds of agents. Collective agency has enabled increased capacity in the system to address the diverse purposes of participants. Yet in this self-organizing system, securing resources for longer term, collective focuses required to advance the local food system has proved to be a challenge.

This longitudinal and qualitative approach shines a light on how common and diverse purposes shape the unfolding of complex social systems with expanded capabilities.

In this chapter we discuss the dynamics of convergence-divergence between organic and non-organic farming systems. We are specifically interested in how and in what ways organic systems emerge into a new system that synthesizes the diverse qualities of competing systems. Or, will these systems continue to diverge because of their path dependencies and contradictory, unresolvable logics? Alternatively, are we confronted with conversion? Following a discussion of the origin of organic agriculture and the IFOAM Principles, we explore differentiation of two agricultural paradigms that was developed more than 20 years ago before the rise of GMOs. This comparison identifies the key features of both systems and a first interpretation on the potential of convergence-divergence. Third, we take a macro-look at agro-food chain that offers insights on the convergence-divergence potential in the context of global, economic, market, political, and societal dynamics. Fourth, we discuss convergence-divergence at the production level comparing the four agricultural systems. Finally, we reflect and assess on the explanatory potential of our study for the future development of organic and non-organic agriculture/farming. We conclude that there is more evidence for conversion than for convergence.

Urban agriculture is increasingly recognized for its potential contribution to more sustainable urban development. Urban agriculture includes the cultivation and raising, processing and marketing of food and non-food crops, medicinal and aromatic herbs, fruit trees, as well as animal products within urban and periurban areas. Urban agriculture positively impacts urban food security, local economic development, environmental management and community building. To reconcile the demands posed by urban growth with urban agriculture activities of high social and economic value, urban agriculture however should be included into land use planning and design, and regulated by municipalities, assuring its proper management and avoiding potential health and environmental risks. Open and green urban spaces could be designed for multifunctional urban agriculture and combine natural habitat, food production, educational, recreational and leisure activities. Such design processes would benefit from broad participation of urban planners and architects, urban farmers, citizens and slum inhabitants as to enhance ownership and engagement, more effectively use available local resources and give the process a higher credibility and wider outreach. This article shares the experience of Rosario, Argentina where the city planners and University staff collaborated with two low-income communities in the design and implementation of a multifunctional neighborhood park, public square and road reserve. A step-by-step participatory design process was followed: starting from initial visioning, defining and relating the various existing and multi-functional land uses desired, to elaborating the site plan, and agreeing on implementation procedures. The article briefly contextualizes the site and its inhabitants, illustrates the design process and the results achieved and highlights some of the problems encountered. Participatory design of open spaces for urban agriculture in Rosario- though a complex process- proved to have contributed to improving socio-economic and environmental conditions in the city, while also serving as a source of inspiration to other cities in the region.

In Beijing, urban agriculture (UA) experienced a corkscrew development with its role changing in decades: It has evolved from the purely production mode to multi-functional urban agriculture, fulfilling both social and ecological demands. At present, the practice of UA as well as the number of rural to urban migrants is growing rapidly in peri-urban Beijing. Through Multi-stakeholder Process for Action planning and Policy Design (MPAP) methodology and four in-depth case studies, we can see that UA activities are playing very important roles in reshaping peri-urban Beijing. Socially, UA induces the emergence of new migrant communities. While migrants rebuild their social network, they are changed by the city as well, which has also changed the local community. The new comers are on their way to creating a new balance. Physically, urban and peri-urban farmland limits urban sprawl, supplies agricultural products for everyday life, and reserves urban green spaces for recreation and leisure for citizens in Beijing, which has changed the landscape and land use and land cover (LUCC) pattern greatly. Under Beijing's land policy, the concentric configuration spatial allocation through multi-functional UA is formed, which at the same time due to migrants' UA activities are creating harmful and low efficient land use pattern which should be of concern.

The purpose of this study is to provide an updated view of the effects of selected socioeconomic and demographic factors on household expenditures for home furnishings among US households. Using consumer demand theory as the underlying theoretical framework, Tobit analysis was used to estimate expenditure equations for household textiles, floor coverings, and furniture using the 1995 Consumer Expenditure Survey. Although the home furnishings industry grew significantly during the 1980s and 1990s, the results of this study indicate that the socioeconomic and demographic factors underlying home furnishing expenditures have remained fairly stable. However, long‐run trends in the age distribution and ethnic composition of the US population suggest that the young adult market and Hispanic consumers are market segments that could provide greater opportunities for companies in the home furnishings industry. In addition, building on the fashion orientation that has developed in home fashions during the past 20 years may provide further opportunities. Finally, future research could benefit from the inclusion of more dwelling‐specific variables, such as the number of rooms in the household, and whether or not remodeling occurred.

Taking Huangshan City as an example, the purpose of this paper is to explore the relationship between gross products of agriculture (GPA), its main composition as well as their influential intermediate inputs, followed by some suggestion, in order to optimize agricultural industrial structure and distribute the ratio of various inputs in agriculture, farming, forestry, animal husbandry and fishery, so as to improve GPA of Huangshan City.

This paper is characterized by an exploratory research by using the grey incidence analysis based on the grey systems theory initiated by Chinese professor Julong Deng. The original data processed in the model are quoted from the Statistical Yearbook of Huangshan City.

This paper draws some important conclusions. First, in terms of large, intermediate inputs in animal husbandry production and fishery production are two important aspects which affect the growth potentiality of agricultural gross products in Huangshan City. This also reflects that the development potentialities of fishery and animal husbandry are larger. Second, the level of agricultural modernization is relatively low in Huangshan City, the growth of agricultural output relies on a large number of inputs such as fertilizers, pesticides, but it also reflects the agriculture production system has huge potentiality to increase in Huangshan City from the side. Third, agriculture producer services as a whole is still relatively weak in Huangshan City. It is difficult to adapt to the development of modern agriculture and agricultural modernization. Finally, the results show that intermediate inputs have different influence on farming, forestry, animal husbandry and fishery.

Suggestion are also proposed to the related policy makers as follows: to vigorously develop animal husbandry and fishery in order to optimize agricultural industrial structure of Huangshan City, to improve agricultural modernization level, to speed up the service support system construction of agriculture production, to optimize the allocation of inputs in farming, forestry, animal husbandry and fishery reasonably.

Public management, sustainability.

The case is suitable for undergraduate and masters' courses.

The case is about the dilemma between the lucrative economic profit from swiftlet farming and the invaluable heritage and social wellbeing of the residents in a world heritage city. In 2011, the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) issued a letter to the Malaysian government expressing concern over the issue of the swiftlet industry in Georgetown, Penang. Swiftlet farming is a lucrative agriculture sector in Malaysia and is considered one of the key projects under the Malaysian Economic Transformation Program. Yet, this industry posed a threat to the well being of George Town due to its impact towards the city's heritage status. The operation of swiftlet farms in shop houses in George Town not only forces residents to coexist with thousands of swiftlets in the populated city, but also deteriorates the condition of its heritage buildings. A quick solution by the government authorities is needed in order to respond to UNESCO's enquiries. A fair consideration looking at the aspects of economy, environment and society is vital in ensuring the future of the city.

These include: understanding the complex issues of trade-offs between economic profit vis-à-vis the environmental social heritage; understanding and appreciating the conflicting governmental objectives and the way to address the conflicting demands of the stakeholders (NGOs, industry and business association and the general public); identifying and determining ways to align environmental interests with economic interests in order to formulate sustainable solutions; and formulating an action plan and providing practical recommendations to solve the problem.

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