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The lack of systematic methods for reducing the complex reality has hampered many of the contributions that processual research might have produced. This paper presents a methodology for processual strategy research that offers a systematic approach for causal explanation across complex sequences of events and enables theorization about underlying causal mechanisms driving the processes. In addition, a comparative analysis of two organizational decline and turnaround processes is presented in order to illuminate how the methodology is able to generate a substantial advancement in knowledge by indicating the causal mechanisms underlying the decline and turnaround processes. The findings show that the turnaround is produced by four causal mechanisms that cumulatively and interdependently work against the mechanism of decline.

Aims to facilitate the work of researchers studying problems/phenomena in social systems from a systemic point of view. Discusses the type of causal processes which exist in social systems and how patterns in social systems can be revealed. Presents four causal processes: historical, functional, cybernetic and pattern. Typologizes pattern processes into the four categories of empirical generalizations, models, theories and social laws. Elaborates on the relationship between models and theories relative to systemic research strategy.

Self‐efficacy has been described as a malleable quality based on individual perceptions of ability in given situations and has repetitively been linked to performance gains and other positive organizational outcomes. Less research has addressed the processes that shape individual efficacy levels. This article explores the role of emotional intelligence and causal reasoning patterns in the development of self‐efficacy beliefs. A research model is forwarded along with associated propositions. Lastly, the implications, limitations, and future research directions of this research are discussed.

In order to explain a phenomenon/problem, some of the mechanisms which elicit the phenomenon/problem must be clarified, since: “a goal of scientific research is to uncover reality beneath appearance”. The purpose of this paper is to investigate the following issue: how can social mechanisms be examined from a systemic point of view?

The paper investigates, at an abstract level, what is meant by social mechanisms in social systems in Part 1. Social mechanisms and various explanation models are investigated in Part 2, using the systemic approach.

However well‐functioning the models developed, this procedure will not have developed a theory of the phenomenon. For that purpose, explanations at a more basic level than the model is able to disclose, will be necessary. The empirical causal model says something about the strength in the relation between the variables and can be used in practice in order to change certain variables to facilitate the desired change in the system.

The paper usefully shows that, if possible, explanations at a more basic level would be desirable; but not necessary for the application of insights in practical contexts. By this, the paper has stated that a theory can be desirable, but not necessary, in order to develop, e.g. innovative organisations. Models and social mechanisms, on the other hand, are necessary to organise knowledge for the purpose of use in practical contexts.

Although business incubators are widely used support mechanisms for innovative entrepreneurship, the literature still lacks theoretically based explanations of how the incubation process creates value for stakeholders. This study aims to address this gap by developing a conceptual model, and related research propositions, that explains how the entrepreneurial logic in use by an incubator influences the incubation process (selection criteria and service offering) and performance.

Integrating the effectuation and entrepreneurial opportunities literature, which shares common conceptualizations about how the predictability of the future affects entrepreneurial action, the authors posit two archetypes of entrepreneurial logic that are associated with different incubation processes (causal or effectual) and two archetypes of opportunity attributes (discovery- or creation-based) that affect the incubation process needed to support their development.

Juxtaposing these archetypes, the proposed cross-level conceptual model specifies four levels of fit (ideal, surplus, deficit and mismatch) between the incubation process and the opportunity attributes of individual ventures, which directly influence venture performance (high, moderate and low). In turn, an incubator's performance is largely shaped by the overall performance of ventures in its portfolio.

This paper responds to the call for theory-building that links the antecedents and outcomes of the incubation process across levels of analysis. In addition to developing a conceptual model and research agenda at the intersection of entrepreneurship and business incubation, the proposed model also has implications for incubator directors deciding how to allocate limited resources, and for public/private sector administrators interested in leveraging investment in business incubators.

Purpose – The chapter provides an exposition both of Hayek's causal theory of the mind (especially as applied to intentionality) and of Popper's critique of causal theories, argues that Hayek fails successfully to rebut Popper's critique, and shows how the dispute between Hayek and Popper is relevant to controversies in contemporary philosophy of mind.

Methodology/approach –The chapter elucidates Hayek's ideas and Popper's by situating them within the history of the mind/body problem and comparing them to the views of contemporary philosophers like Fred Dretske, Jerry Fodor, and Hilary Putnam.

Findings – Popper's critique has yet to be answered, either by Hayek or by contemporary causal theorists.

Originality/value of the chapter –The chapter calls attention to some important but neglected ideas of Hayek and Popper and examines some of their as-yet-unpublished writings.

Projects have high stakes in how they are categorized. The final place of a project within a classification scheme depends on the inclusion or exclusion of certain classification criteria. So far, many researchers and organizations have used a variety classification criteria to construct different project classification schemes. However, most of these classification criteria have been taken for granted and the process of selecting them to categorize projects still remains a black box. The purpose of this paper is to open the black box of classification process and explain how it is reflected in picking the classification criteria.

Drawing on insights from cognitive psychology’s literature, the authors examine the main views of classification process to provide insight into the unknown or implicit reasons that one might have to pick particular attributes as project classification criteria.

The authors argue that classification occurs in the eye of the beholder; it is not only the project’s features per se but also the classifier’s “goals, ideal and preference” or “knowledge of causal relations” that are reflected in the classification criteria.

By elaborating the classification process, the authors brought the project context into the big picture of classification and provide a more rational, and coherent picture of how project classification works. This contributes to a theoretical blind spot, raised by prior researchers, related to the selection of project classification criteria.

Understanding classification processes will reduce the ambiguities, inconsistencies and multiple interpretations of project categories and help practitioners increase their projects’ visibility and legitimacy within an already established classification scheme. These implications help organizations in addressing some of the main obstacles to using categorization in project management practice.

The review of prior work in the category research literature and the insights from this paper will provide project management scholars with a useful toolbox for future research on project classification, which has long been understudied.

The purpose of this paper is to explore and propose how product-in-use data can be used in, and improve the performance of, the demand planning process for automotive aftermarket services.

A literature review and a single case study investigate the underlying reasons for the demand for spare parts by conducting in-depth interviews, observing actual demand-generating activities, and studying the demand planning process.

This study identifies the relevant product-in-use data and divides them into five main categories. The authors have analysed how product-in-use data are best utilised in planning spare parts with different attributes, e.g. different life cycle phases and demand frequencies. Furthermore, the authors identify eight potentially relevant areas of application of product-in-use data in the demand planning process, and elaborate on their performance effects.

This study details the understanding of what impact context has on the potential performance effects of using product-in-use data in aftermarket demand planning. Propositions generate several strands for future research.

This study shows the potential impact of using product-in-use data, using eight different types of interventions for spare parts, in the aftermarket demand planning.

The literature focusses on single applications of product-in-use data, but would benefit from considering the context of application. This study presents interventions and explores how these enable improved demand planning by analysing usage and effects.

The purpose of this paper is to show that Hoshin Kanri has the potential to integrate the operations strategy literature into a coherent structure. Hoshin Kanri’s planning process is typically described as a top-down cascading of goals, starting with the senior management’s goals and moving to the lowest organizational level. The authors argue that this misrepresents a firm’s actual cognitive processes in practice because it implies reasoning from the effects to the cause, and assumes a direct causal relationship between what the customer wants and what is realizable by the system.

This study is conceptual, based on abductive reasoning and the literature.

The actual strategic thought process executed in an organization consists of three iterative processes: (i) a translation process that derives the desired customer attributes from customer/stakeholder data, (ii) a process of causal inference that predicts realizable customer attributes from a possible system design and (iii) an integrative process of strategic choices whereby (i) and (ii) are aligned. Each element relies on different cognitive processes (logical relation, causal relation and choice).

By aligning the thought and planning processes, the competing concepts of manufacturing strategy are integrated into a coherent structure.

Different techniques have to be applied for each of the three elements. As each element relies on different cognitive processes (logical relation, causal relation and choice), the use of unifying tools (e.g. in the form of matrices, as often presented in the literature) is inappropriate.

This is the first study to focus on the thought processes underpinning manufacturing strategy.

The aim of this paper is to develop an integrative model that explains how incorporating the two epistemological positions of critical realism and attribution theory can help qualitative organisational researchers better understand the reality of social actors through different lenses. In addition, the paper aims to demonstrate the application of the model through a study of organisational justice perceptions of elite Muslim professionals undergoing performance appraisal in the UK banking sector.

The approach adopted used semi-structured in-depth interviews with Muslim professionals in elite positions in UK Western and Islamic banks. Access to participants was secured through a process of purposive and snowball sampling, a tool often used to recruit hard-to-reach populations. The data were analysed through the integrative model developed in this paper.

The integration of critical realism and attribution theory provided different dimensionalities of social reality. Attribution theory enabled a systematic identification of social phenomena and their causal mechanisms, defined the characteristics of those mechanisms and highlighted who/what is responsible for and affected by them. Critical realism distinguished between causal mechanisms and the generative forces that help those mechanisms to be actualised and have effect.

The contribution of this paper is twofold. First, to the best of my knowledge, it is the first paper to build a novel integrative model of these two epistemologies. Second, it presents a detailed application of the model in a contemporary study of the perceptions of justice of Muslims in the UK banking sector.