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GreenEarth.travel is an integrated, holistic destination strategy to assist the tourism industry move into the new green economy. This approach has evolved over the last 15 years through a number of strategies initiated by the authors in their policy, management, and research activities. This has involved development of Agenda 21 for Travel and Tourism, Green Globe, Earthcheck, Earthlung, and most recently GreenEarth.travel. The GreenEarth.travel approach has been developed while the authors worked on sustainable destination strategies for Sri Lanka, Turks and Caicos, and Sharm el Sheikh in Egypt. GreenEarth.travel includes a general set of criteria to guide development of destinations that seek to move to a green economy. The criteria identify key components that need to be addressed to put a destination onto a carbon clean pathway. The plan offers a structured, creative approach both to adapt to climate change risks and to take advantage of the opportunities provided by the broader “green economy” change gathering momentum globally.

The purpose of this paper is to examine the reasons that mega‐events rarely realise their potential for host destinations and to suggest issues that need to be addressed in rectifying this issue.

The paper is based on a synthesis of the literature as well as the substantial event‐related experience of the authors.

The key reason that mega‐events do not generate the expected benefits for the host destination is that event organisers and destination managers adopt a short‐term perspective rather than seeing mega‐events as part of a long‐term strategy for the destination. Even the planned legacies are often not realised as resource constraints in the lead up to the staging of the event often results in resources being shifted away from planning for legacies and being allocated to helping cover the more immediate needs of the event.

If the mega‐event knowledge portal that is proposed in this paper to help improve the overall contribution that mega‐events make to host destinations is developed, it will prove to be a fertile source of data for longitudinal research in the field of mega‐events.

As so many mega‐events fail to deliver the expected benefits for the host destination, this paper provides some useful insights into the key issues that need to be addressed in order to help overcome this problem.

This paper aims to emphasize economic complexity, tourism, information and communication technology (ICT), renewable energy consumption and foreign direct investment (FDI) as the determinants of carbon emissions.

These economies rely on the tourism sector, and Asian countries rank among the top tourism economies worldwide in terms of tourism receipts. This study uses a series of empirical estimators, i.e. cross-sectional augmented auto-regression distributive lag and panel cointegration, to validate the main hypotheses.

The econometric results confirm an inverted U-shaped association between economic complexity and carbon emissions, validating the economic complexity index induced environment Kuznets curve hypothesis for the selected Asian economies.

Finally, the empirical results admit articulating some imperative policy suggestions to attain a sustainable environment on behalf of outcomes.

Furthermore, ICT and renewable energy consumption are environment-friendly indicators, while FDI and the international tourism industry increase environmental pressure in selected countries. In addition, this study also explores the interaction between renewable energy and ICT with FDI and their effects on carbon emissions. Interestingly, both interaction terms positively respond to the environmental correction process.

Because ICT with FDI may not reduce environmental pollution unless the energy used in FDI projects is greener. Moreover, in Asian economies, industrial and other sectors could increase environmental quality via the role of ICT in FDI.

修正亚洲前 8 大经济体的旅游环境库兹涅茨曲线假设：ict 和可再生能源消耗的作用

这些经济体依赖旅游业, 就旅游收入而言, 亚洲国家在全球旅游经济体中名列前茅。本研究使用一系列经验估计量, 即 CS-ARDL 和面板协整来验证我们的主要假设。

本文强调经济复杂性、旅游、信息和通信技术 (ICT)、可再生能源消费和外国直接投资 (FDI) 作为碳排放的决定因素

计量经济学结果证实了经济复杂性与碳排放之间的倒 U 型关联, 验证了 ECI 对选定亚洲经济体的环境库兹涅茨曲线 (EKC) 假设。

最后, 实证结果承认阐明了一些必要的政策建议, 以代表结果实现可持续环境。

此外, 信息通信技术和可再生能源消耗是环境友好型指标, 而外国直接投资和国际旅游业增加了选定国家的环境压力。此外, 本研究还探讨了可再生能源和 ICT 与外国直接投资之间的相互作用及其对碳排放的影响。有趣的是, 这两个交互项都对环境校正过程做出了积极响应。

ICT 与 FDI 可能不会减少环境污染, 除非 FDI 项目中的能源使用更环保。此外, 在亚洲经济体中, 工业和其他部门可以通过 ICT 在 FDI 中的作用提高环境质量。

环境库兹涅茨曲线; 外商直接投资;信息和通信技术; 可再生能源;旅游;亚洲主要旅游经济体

文章类型： 研究型论文

Although extensive studies have examined the link between tourism and carbon emissions, the impact of tourism on carbon emissions remains controversial. In contrast to prior studies, this study aims to investigate the effects of tourism on carbon emissions at the city level and the underlying moderating mechanism.

This study designs an econometric model drawing on panel data for 313 city-level regions in China from 2001 to 2019. This study also performs rigorous robustness tests to support the regression results. In addition, the temporal and spatial heterogeneity is analyzed based on which this study discusses the moderators of the effects of tourism on carbon emissions.

The results show that both tourist arrivals and tourism revenue significantly impact carbon emissions. Also, there exists a significant temporal and spatial heterogeneity of these effects. Economic development significantly enhances while green technology and tertiary industry development suppress the positive relationship between tourism and carbon emissions. Moreover, regarding the impact on carbon emissions, an explicit substitution exists between tourism and tertiary industry development.

For the first time, this study quantitatively estimates the moderators of tourism’s impact on carbon emissions and concludes the moderating effects of economic growth, technological progress and industrial structure, thus furthering the theoretical understanding of the heterogeneity of tourism’s association with carbon emissions. The study also fills a technical gap in previous studies by demonstrating the reliability of the findings through various robustness tests. This is also the first empirical study to systematically examine the relationship between tourism and carbon emissions in China.

尽管已经有大量的研究考察了旅游和碳排放之间的联系, 但旅游对碳排放的影响仍有争议。与之前的研究相比, 本研究旨在研究城市层面上旅游业对碳排放的影响以及潜在的调节机制。

本研究基于2001-2019年中国313个城市层面的面板数据, 设计了一个计量经济学模型。本研究还进行了各种严格的稳健性检验以支持基准回归结果。本研究还分析了时空异质性, 并在此基础上讨论了旅游对碳排放影响的调节因素。

研究结果显示, 旅游者人次和旅游收入都对碳排放有明显影响。同时, 这些影响存在明显的时间和空间异质性。经济发展明显增强但是绿色技术和第三产业发展抑制了旅游业与碳排放之间的正向关系。此外, 旅游业和第三产业发展在对碳排放的影响方面存在显著的替代关系。

本研究首次定量估计了旅游业对碳排放影响的调节因素, 并总结出经济增长、技术进步和产业结构的调节作用, 从而进一步推动了对旅游业与碳排放关联的异质性的理论认识。文章还填补了以往研究的技术空白, 通过各种稳健性检验证明了研究结果的可靠性。本研究还是第一个系统地研究中国旅游业与碳排放关系的实证研究。

Este estudio diseña un modelo econométrico basado en datos de panel para 313 regiones a nivel de ciudad en China desde 2001 hasta 2019. Este estudio también aplica rigurosas pruebas de robustez para apoyar los resultados de la regresión. Además, se analiza la heterogeneidad temporal y espacial en base a la cual este estudio discute los moderadores efectos del turismo en las emisiones de carbono.

Aunque numerosos estudios han examinado la relación entre el turismo y las emisiones de carbono, su impacto sigue siendo controvertido. A diferencia de los estudios anteriores, este estudio pretende investigar los efectos del turismo en las emisiones de carbono a nivel de ciudad y el mecanismo moderador subyacente.

Los resultados muestran que tanto las llegadas de turistas como los ingresos por turismo influyen significativamente en las emisiones de carbono. Además, existe una importante heterogeneidad temporal y espacial de estos efectos. El desarrollo económico aumenta significativamente, mientras que la tecnología verde y el desarrollo de la industria terciaria suprimen la relación positiva entre el turismo y las emisiones de carbono. Además, en lo que respecta al impacto sobre las emisiones de carbono, existe una sustitución explícita entre el turismo y el desarrollo de la industria terciaria.

Por primera vez, este estudio estima cuantitativamente los moderadores del impacto del turismo en las emisiones de carbono y concluye los efectos moderadores del crecimiento económico, el progreso tecnológico y la estructura industrial, lo que permite avanzar en la comprensión teórica de la heterogeneidad de la asociación del turismo con las emisiones de carbono. El artículo también resuelve una carencia técnica de los estudios anteriores al demostrar la fiabilidad de las conclusiones mediante diversas pruebas de solidez. Este es también el primer estudio empírico que examina sistemáticamente la relación entre el turismo y las emisiones de carbono en China.

Underpinned by three-factor theory, this study aims to: examine the dynamics (asymmetry) of multi-quality low-carbon attributes towards the Thai tourists’ perception and prioritise carbon-tourism attributes on the basis of impact-range performance and asymmetric analysis.

The study applies a multi-method approach to derive the low-carbon tourism (LCT) items before conducting exploratory factor analysis to identify the underlying dimensions. Impact range performance analysis and impact asymmetry analysis were carried out to explore the asymmetric or symmetric relationship associated with tourists’ perception of LCT.

Findings reveal the three dimensions of the LCT attributes. Out of the 29 attributes, nine are regarded as “must-have” categories, such that tourists will be disappointed at the efforts of a low-carbon destination if these attributes are missing, but they will feel neutral if the attributes are present. Six LCT attributes fall into the “hybrid” category, such that tourists will appreciate if they perceive these attributes to be available for LCT and feel disappointed if these attributes are not or poorly offered. Fourteen attributes are considered under the “value-added” category, meaning tourists will only appreciate if they encounter these attributes at the destination, and the lack thereof will not cause any dissatisfaction or negative perception from tourists.

Through the multi-quality asymmetric analysis, the study provides deep insights into the degree of perception of the 29 LCT attributes. The study offers tangible guidelines to destination authorities and pinpoints the necessity to provide attributes, especially in the “hybrid” and “must-have” categories, to avoid tourists’ negative perceptions when they visit a low-carbon destination.

目的-本研究基于三因素理论, 旨在: 1) 探讨多质量低碳属性对泰国游客的积极认知的动态性（即非对称性）; 2) 基于影响范围性能和非对称分析确定低碳旅游属性的优先次序。

本研究在进行探索性因素分析以确定潜在维度之前, 采用了多方法途径推导出低碳旅游（LCT）项目。通过影响范围性能分析(IRPA)和影响非对称性分析(IAA) , 来探索与游客对LCT的积极认知相关的不对称或对称关系。

研究结果显示了LCT属性的三个维度。在29个属性中, 有9个被视为“必备”类别, 这意味着如果这些属性缺失, 游客就会对低碳旅游目的地的努力感到失望, 但如果这些属性存在, 则会保持中立。6个LCT属性属于"混合 “类别, 这意味着如果游客认为LCT有这些属性, 他们会很赞赏, 但如果没有这些属性或提供的属性不佳, 他们则会感到失望。14个属性被认为属于"增值 “类别, 这意味着游客只有在旅游目的地遇到这些属性时才会感到赞赏, 而缺乏这些属性则不会引起游客的不满或负面看法。

通过多质量非对称性分析, 本研究对理解29个LCT属性的认知程度提供了深刻的见解。该研究为旅游目的地管理机构提供了切实的指导, 并明确指出了提供属性的必要性, 特别是在"混合"和"必备"类别中, 以避免游客在前往低碳旅游目的地时产生负面看法。

El estudio aplica un enfoque multimétodo para obtener los elementos del turismo bajo en carbono (TBC) antes de realizar un análisis factorial exploratorio para identificar las dimensiones subyacentes. Se llevó a cabo un análisis de rendimiento del rango de impacto y un análisis de asimetría del impacto para explorar la relación asimétrica o simétrica asociada a la percepción de los turistas sobre el TBC.

Apoyándose en la teoría de los tres factores, el estudio pretende 1) examinar la dinámica (asimetría) de los atributos de baja emisión de carbono de múltiples calidades con respecto a la percepción de los turistas tailandeses y 2) priorizar los atributos del turismo de carbono sobre la base del rendimiento del rango de impacto y el análisis asimétrico.

Los resultados revelan las tres dimensiones de los atributos del turismo de carbono. De los 29 atributos, nueve se consideran categorías “imprescindibles”, de modo que los turistas se sentirán decepcionados por los esfuerzos de un destino con bajas emisiones de carbono si estos atributos faltan, pero se sentirán neutrales si los atributos están presentes. Seis atributos de los TBC entran en la categoría “híbrida”, de manera que los turistas apreciarán si perciben que estos atributos están disponibles para los TBC y se sentirán decepcionados si estos atributos no se ofrecen o se ofrecen de manera deficiente. Catorce atributos se consideran en la categoría de “valor añadido”, lo que significa que los turistas sólo apreciarán si encuentran estos atributos en el destino, y la falta de ellos no causará ninguna insatisfacción o percepción negativa por parte de los turistas.

A través del análisis asimétrico de la calidad múltiple, el estudio proporciona una visión profunda del grado de percepción de los 29 atributos del TBC. El estudio ofrece directrices tangibles a las autoridades de los destinos y señala la necesidad de proporcionar atributos, especialmente en las categorías “híbrida” e “imprescindible”, para evitar la percepción negativa de los turistas cuando visitan un destino con bajas emisiones de carbono.

This study aims to illustrate the impact-assessment procedure of low-carbon tourism (LCT) program implemented in a world heritage city and to develop specific indicators toward sustainability.

The impact-assessment framework was indicator-based and designed for creating sustainable tourism (ST) in a case study. A set of indicators in various dimensions was developed and applied, referring to the UNWTO guideline. A mixed method of primary and secondary data collected from different sources included document review, site observation, key informant interview, questionnaire survey and focus-group discussions. Assessment of actual/observed impacts was proceeded based on the data collected from tourists and stakeholders, especially on tourist behaviors and resource consumptions.

The implementation of LCT program in a world heritage city provided impacts in different dimensions and characters. The observed activities were majorly tourism activities in accommodations and recreational places. The indicator initiation is the first development toward sustainability in a case of tourism study in a city destination. Indicators were developed with participation from key stakeholders and covered sustainability and carbon-emission dimensions. Impact-assessment results show a positive theme in less carbon emission, enhanced local income distribution and community capacity. However, the negative impacts include increased amounts of resource consumption and waste generation in visiting sites. The impact matrix works as the map for decision-makers to maximize benefits and manage the cons of the LCT program toward ST principles.

Research methodology, procedure and results on impact assessment with holistic perspectives imply academic contribution and practical benefits for decision-makers regarding ST development. The number of samples and enterprises was limited because of the program implementation period.

The research illustrates the impact-assessment process for an implemented city-based LCT program toward ST, where stakeholder participation was also functioning. A list of indicators was specially designed and can be practically applied for other LCT programs in city destinations. Applying a sustainability impact-assessment framework to the program can provide a clear presentation on how to develop ST.

The search for luxurious hospitality experiences increasingly coincides with the imperative to mitigate negative impacts in the pursuit of greater sustainability. This is a task often understood as being complex particularly in the context of luxury hospitality which often resonates with conspicuous consumption. This chapter uses a case study approach to analyze the complex relationship between luxury tourism and sustainability. The study focuses on the development of “luxury” from a materialistic perspective toward an experience economy and relates this to the concept of sustainability and agreements relevant to the tourism industry. The environmental impact of luxury hospitality is then discussed. The case study on properties in Costa Rica, South Africa, the Maldives, Vietnam, and French Polynesia focuses on philosophy, facilities, energy and waste consumption, food and beverage, conservational and educational activities, and alignment to the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (UN SDGs). The focus is on the properties and shows limitations in that it is not applicable to the whole tourist journey and experience. All properties understand luxury as based on experiences and involvement in nature. Measures to mitigate environmental impact and foster conservational and educational activities are mainstream practices. Comparing the cases with academic literature on luxury, sustainability, ecotourism, and environmental policies underline that sustainability-driven luxury hospitality shows valuable steps toward a more sustainable product but is ultimately faced with the dilemma of taking into consideration and ultimately mitigating the impacts of the entire travel value chain.

To accelerate the development of low-carbon industry in Zhaoqing City, transform the mode of economic growth, and promote industrial transformation and upgrading, the SWOT analysis method was applied. From the four aspects of strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats, the feasibility of developing a low-carbon economy in Zhaoqing was systematically analyzed. From the adjustment of industrial structure, the optimization of energy structure, the promotion of low-carbon tourism, the development of circular economy, and the enhancement of carbon sink capacity, the development path of low-carbon economy was explored. Based on the above analysis, a low carbon development plan was prepared. From the implementation of low-carbon development strategy, the choice of low-carbon economy pilot, and the low-carbon economic security system, the implementation steps of Zhaoqing's low-carbon economy were discussed in detail. The results showed that the low-carbon economy concept provided some ideas for Zhaoqing's economic development. Therefore, Zhaoqing is still in its infancy. The city's transportation system is not perfect. To develop a low-carbon economy, governments, enterprises, and individuals need to participate actively.

This paper aims to explore the area of carbon offsets and carbon neutrality within the context of hotels and resorts. In theory, carbon markets assist organizations in reducing their carbon footprint by purchasing carbon offsets. This conceptual paper aims to explore this market, analyze its operations and evaluate the participants. The expectation is that this original research will provide a foundation for analyzing this market to make sense of the widely disparate views about carbon neutrality held by companies in the hospitality sector.

The research study aimed to uncover what claims are currently made about carbon neutrality, what properties are making these claims and are these claims legitimate? A broad Internet search was conducted to collect a sample of hotels and resorts that marketed carbon neutrality as a feature of their properties. Next, a five-point Likert type scale was constructed to analyze every hotel and resort in terms of legitimate reflection of market performance challenges or dimensions. In this study, the hotels that claim to be “Carbon Neutral” were scored according to four market performance dimensions: project quality, carbon calculations, quality information of providers and price per ton of carbon offset.

The paper’s findings offer a twofold contribution. First, hotels and resorts interested in entering the offset market can use the results as strategic information to bolster efforts to achieve legitimacy and viability in this market. Second, the findings offer a benefit to consumers concerned to reduce their carbon footprint, as the results include a determination of the best hotels and resorts in terms of carbon neutrality.

This research found that the claim “carbon neutral” is used often to attract green consumers. The spectrum of claims ranged from hotels presenting comprehensive carbon management plans or online carbon footprint applications, to hotels that had minimal information and used the “carbon neutral” for marketing purposes only. In numerous cases, the claim of carbon neutrality is not substantiated and, in this case, might be construed as greenwashing.

The findings indicate that claims of carbon neutrality can be exaggerated and that the consumers must themselves be educated to be aware of claims that are unfounded.

Given the large and rising number of offset providers in the unregulated carbon offset industry and the hotel industry, this contribution promises to offer value. This study is one of the first formal analyses of carbon offsets in the hospitality market. The author hopes that this study will encourage others to research the growing market of voluntary carbon offsets further.