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The purpose of this paper is to explore the sources of caffeine and its utilization in different food products, along with its impact on human health in terms of benefits and adverse effect.

The papers reviewed were selected based on the following key descriptors such as caffeine, sources, trends of consumption, utilization, benefits and adverse effects, regulation and labelling.

There are many physiological effects of caffeine on respiratory, cardiovascular, gastrointestinal, reproductive and central nervous system. It has a positive effect in reducing the risk of diabetes, Alzheimer’s disease, Parkinson’s disease and liver injury and, at the same time, in improving mood, psychomotor performance and immune response. On the other hand, the negative effects of caffeine include addiction, cancer, heart diseases, insomnia, gastrointestinal disturbances and intoxication. As caffeine, when taken in large amount, is harmful, therefore as per the regulatory bodies, its concentration should not exceed the set limit, and its presence needs to be listed on the label of that particular food product. In a nutshell, it can be said that caffeine acts as a boon as well as bane because it possesses both beneficial and adverse effects.

This is a unique and comprehensive review that will provide a brief overview of sources, utilization, healthful as well as harmful effect of caffeine to the readers.

Purpose – A placebo effect is a (positive) change in health outcomes that is due to a (positive) change in beliefs about the value of a treatment. Placebo effects might be “behavioral,” in the sense that revised beliefs lead to behavioral changes or new actions that in turn yield changes in health outcomes. Placebo effects might also include a “physiological” component, which refers broadly to non-behavioral, brain-modulated mechanisms by which new beliefs cause changes in health outcomes. Nearly all formal economic models of human behavior are consistent with behavioral placebo effects, but strongly inconsistent with their physiological counterparts. The reason is that the latter effects can imply that expectations enter, rather than multiply, state-contingent preferences. It is therefore unfortunate that little evidence exists on physiological placebo effects. We report data from novel clinical experiments with caffeine that seek to provide such evidence.

Methods – Subjects visit the clinic on multiple occasions. On each visit they ingest either a placebo or caffeine pill. Subjects only know the probability with which the pill includes caffeine. We obtain physiological measurements prior to ingestion and at 30, 60, and 90min after ingestion. Importantly, we constrain subjects to remain seated and read pre-selected magazines during the interval between treatment and outcome measurement.

Findings – Our design provides particularly clean inference because it (i) eliminates the possibility of behavioral confounds; (ii) provides for measurements at the individual level; (iii) manipulates beliefs without deception; and (iv) uses salient rewards. We find evidence for the existence of physiological placebo effects mediated by expectations.

Implications – Our results are consistent with the possibility that the prefrontal cortex provides external, top-down control that modulates physiological outcomes, and make a case for the importance of research geared toward developing appropriate and tractable frameworks that accommodate non-linear relationships between expectations and preferences.

The purpose of this paper is to apply the Becker‐Murphy theory of rational addiction to the case of carbonated soft drinks. The research aims to reveal the rational addiction evidence of carbonated soft drinks and derive policy implications under this evidence. Consumers' rational addictive evidence for carbonated soft drinks provides a warning for the Chinese government to regulate the industry, due to its bad health consequences.

The authors empirically apply a time‐varying parameter model and scanner data set from 46 US cities.

Empirical results provide strong evidence that carbonated soft drinks are rationally addictive, thus opening the door to taxation and regulation. Taking rational addition into account, estimated demand elasticities are much lower than previous estimates using scanner data, which implies a limited role for taxes to curb consumption but a strong role to raise revenue to fund health promotion programs.

This is the first study to test the rational addiction nature of carbonated soft drinks, thus adding to the scarce economic literature on food addiction. Although the empirical results derived are based on soft drink consumption in the USA, China is experiencing a similar consumption increase in carbonated soft drinks as in the USA, in the examined period. Therefore, the lessons from the USA are also valuable for the public policy makers in China.

1. The Committee have received a request from the Tea and Coffee Division for advice as to appropriate standards for liquid “coffee essences” including coffee and chicory essences, with a view to the issue of an Order prescribing standards for these products under the Defence (Sale of Food) Regulations, 1943. 2. From the information given to the Committee by members of the trade and by the Division, the following conclusions were drawn :—(i) Purchasers of coffee and chicory essences appreciate the characteristic bitterness of chicory and would not regard with favour a product made with coffee only. (ii) If supplies of chicory in any season fell short of the quantity necessary for the maintenance of the desired output of coffee and chicory essences, there would be a tendency to include some alternative flavouring such an mangolds, malt, artichokes or parsnips. (iii) These materials are in no way deleterious to health, and their use is not objectionable provided the public is not misled as to the nature of the product. 3. Standards for coffee essences and coffee and chicory essences have been established in certain of the Dominions. The former are usually required to contain not less than 0·5 per cent. weight in weight of caffeine, the latter not less than 0·25 per cent. weight in weight. In this country a minimum standard of 4 per cent. weight in weight of dry coffee extractives has been proposed for coffee and chicory essences. Assuming that coffee contains 1·225 per cent. of caffeine, that it yelds 25 per cent. of dry extractives, and that these standards relate to essences that have a specific gravity of 1·2, 0·5 per cent. of caffeine corresponds to about 4¾lb. of coffee per gallon, and 4 per cent. of extractives corresponds to slightly under 2lb. per gallon. 4. If the standards are expressed as a percentage weight in weight manufacturers of products having a lower gravity would be able to use less coffee per unit volume of product than would have to be used by manufacturers of products of higher gravity. This is obviously undesirable and for this and other reasons the Committee consider it preferable to express the standard as a percentage weight in volume so that the proportion of coffee to be used for the manufacture of a given volume of essence will be independent of variations in the proportions of other ingredients. 5. Having regard to the above standards and to the proportions of coffee used both pre‐war and at present in most of the coffee and chicory essences on the market, the Committee are of the opinion that a product should not be sold as coffee essence unless prepared with at least 4lb. of roasted coffee per gallon, and that no compounded coffee product for producing a beverage should be sold as derived from coffee unless it contains at least 2lb. of roasted coffee per gallon. 6. There is, however, no direct method of determining the proportion of coffee used in these products, and for analytical purposes it is necessary to rely on determinations of the caffeine content and, when no other vegetable ingredient is present, of the dry extractives. Part of the value of the essences must be ascribed to the stimulating effect of the caffeine content which is derived solely from the coffee. The use of an adequate proportion of coffee in the manufacture of essences and the presence of a reasonable proportion of caffeine can therefore be conveniently ensured by expressing the standard in terms of a minimum percentage of caffeine. The Committee consider that a fair average figure for the caffeine content of roasted coffee is 1·25 per cent. A coffee essence prepared with the minimum proportion of coffee suggested above, namely, 41b. of coffee per gallon, would, if the coffee is of average caffeine content, contain 0·5 per cent. w/v of caffeine and coffee and chicory essences not less than 0·25 per cent. w/v of caffeine. 7. While an essence prepared with the minimum proportion of coffee would comply with the above standard if the coffee were of average caffeine content, the latter may fall to 1 per cent. or, on rare occasions, even‐lower. Thus a manufacturer who did not regularly submit his essence to analysis might market an essence which although prepared with the minimum proportion of coffee that is considered desirable did not comply with the caffeine standard. The Committee therefore recommend that it should be a defence in any prosecution in respect of an alleged infringement of the standard to prove that the essence had been made with not less than 41b. of roasted coffee per gallon in the case of a coffee essence or with not less than 21b. of roasted coffee per gallon in the case of a coffee and chicory essence. 8. Consideration has been given to the bearing of the foregoing recommendations on the use of alternatives to chicory in products regarded as falling within the broad definition of “Coffee Essence” adopted for the particular purposes of the Coffee Essence (Control) Order, 1942. The Committee are of the opinion that the sale of these preparations under the description “coffee essence” or “coffee and chicory essence” without qualification would, in general, be misleading. In addition, a requirement that they should contain not less than 21b. of coffee per gallon might prove embarrassing to the manufacturers. It is accordingly suggested that products sold under these descriptions should not be permitted to contain vegetable extractives other than extractives of coffee or coffee and chicory respectively. If standards including a requirement to this effect be prescribed for these two types of essence by an Order under the Defence (Sale of Food) Regulations, 1943, then under the Food Standards Order, 1944, it will be obligatory to describe products containing alternatives to chicory in such a way as not to lead an intending purchaser to believe that he is purchasing either coffee essence or coffee and chicory essence. Traders and the public will then be able clearly to distinguish products containing only coffee and chicory from those which contain alternatives either in addition to, or in place of, chicory. 9. The further question arises whether a standard chicory content should be prescribed for coffee and chicory essences. Although it is usually possible to ascertain the chicory content of such essences with fair accuracy from the figures for the ash and extractive matter derived from the amount of coffee calculated to be present by reference to the caffeine content, so far as the Committee are aware there is no method of sufficient accuracy for use in enforcing a statutory standard. Apart from this it appears to be unnecessary to fetter the discretion of manufacturers to the extent of fixing the relative proportions of coffee and chicory provided the combined weights of coffee and chicory are satisfactory. The standard proposed above for coffee and chicory essences will ensure a content of not less than 21b. of roasted coffee per gallon, and having regard to the weights of coffee and chicory used both pre‐war and at present in eighteen brands the Committee consider that it should be made a condition of the grant of a licence under the Coffee Essence (Control) Order, 1942, that these products should be prepared with not less than 41b. of roasted coffee and chicory per gallon. 10. The Committee accordingly recommend that : (1) Liquid coffee should be required to contain not less than 0·5 per cent. weight in volume of caffeine derived from coffee. (2) Liquid coffee essences should not be permitted to contain vegetable extractives other than extractives derived from coffee. (3) Liquid coffee and chicory essences should be required to contain not less than 0·25 per cent. weight in volume of caffeine derived from coffee. (4) Liquid coffee and chicory essences should not be permitted to contain vegetable extractives other than extractives derived from coffee or chicory. (5) In any proceedings in respect of an alleged infringement of the standard for coffee essences or for coffee and chicory essences, it should be a defence for the defendant to prove that the essence was prepared with not less than 41b. of roasted coffee per gallon in the case of coffee essences or 21b. per gallon in the case of coffee and chicory essences. (6) It should be made a condition of the grant of a licence under the Coffee Essence (Control) Order, 1942, for the manufacture of a coffee and chicory essence that the product should be prepared with not less than 41b. of roasted coffee and chicory per gallon. In a précis of the Committee's report which has been issued by the Ministry, it is stated that in certain Dominions coffee essences are required to contain not less than 0·5 per cent. weight in weight of caffeine, and coffee and chicory essences not less than 0·25 per cent. weight in weight. In this country a minimum standard of 4 per cent. weight in weight of dry coffee extractives has been proposed for coffee and chicory essences. Assuming that coffee contains 1·25 per cent. of caffeine, that it yields 25 per cent. of dry extractives, and that these standards relate to essences that have a specific gravity of 1·2, 0·5 per cent. of caffeine corresponds to about 4¾lb. of coffee per gallon, and 4 per cent. of extractives corresponds to slightly under 21b. per gallon. If the standards are expressed as a percentage weight in weight, manufacturers of products having a lower gravity would be able to use less coffee per unit volume of product than manufacturers of products of higher gravity. For this and other reasons the Committee consider it preferable to express the standard as a percentage weight in volume. In view of the above standards and the proportions of coffee used both pre‐war and at present in most of the coffee and chicory essences on the market, the Committee consider that a product should not be sold as coffee essence unless prepared with at least 41b. of roasted coffee per gallon, and that no compounded coffee product for producing a beverage should be sold as derived from coffee unless it contains at least 21b. of roasted coffee per gallon. In the absence of a direct method of determining the proportion of coffee used, and since part of the value of the essences must be ascribed to the stimulating effect of the caffeine content, the Committee recommend that the standard be expressed as a minimum percentage of caffeine. A coffee essence prepared with 41b. of coffee per gallon would, if the coffee contained 1·25 per cent. of caffeine, which is regarded as a fair average, contain 0·5 per cent. w/v of caffeine, and coffee and chicory essences not less than 0·25 per cent. w/v of caffeine. The defence suggested in recommendation 5 above is to provide for the possibility that the caffeine content of the coffee used may be below the average. Reference is made in the recommendations to preparations containing alternatives to chicory, which may be regarded as falling within the broad definition of “Coffee Essence,” adopted for the particular purposes of the Coffee Essence (Control) Order, 1942. The Committee consider that the sale of these preparations under the description “coffee essence” or “coffee and chicory essence” without qualification would, in general, be misleading. In addition, a requirement that they should contain not less than 21b. of coffee per gallon might prove embarrassing to the manufacturers. It is therefore suggested that products sold under these descriptions should not be permitted to contain vegetable extractives, other than extractives of coffee or coffee and chicory respectively. Under the Food Standards Order, 1944, it will then be obligatory to describe products containing alternatives to chicory in such a way as not to lead an intending purchaser to believe that he is purchasing either coffee essence or coffee and chicory essence. Traders and the public will thus be able clearly to distinguish products containing only coffee and chicory from those which contain alternatives either in addition to, or in place of, chicory. The Committee suggest that it is unnecessary to fetter the discretion of manufacturers to the extent of fixing the relative proportions of coffee and chicory provided the combined weights of coffee and chicory are satisfactory as suggested in recommendation 6.

The purpose of this paper is to explore the health effects and safety aspects regarding the consumption of energy drink (ED).

A wide variety of publications was identified through electronic databases (ScienceDirect, PubMed, SciELO, Google Scholar, Link springer and ResearchGate) on the basis of different keyword such as composition, market status, consumption pattern, health effects, consequences and policies related to ED consumption.

Owing to its popularity, various brands of EDs have been introduced in the market along with a wide variety of modifications to attract the consumers of all age groups. EDs comprise majorly active ingredients such as caffeine, taurine, guarana, L-carnitine and glucoronolactone, ginseng and sweeteners. EDs are well known to have good taste, enhance energy levels, physical alertness and performance, but they also pose risk of certain health hazards, i.e. caffeine intoxication. Because of this, different policies have been formulated by various regulatory bodies of respective countries regarding the composition, labelling, distribution and sale of EDs.

This review will provide a brief overview of composition, market status, consumption pattern, health effects, consequences and policies related to ED consumption.

Examines the history of coffee drinking. Describes the constituents of coffee and its physiological effects on the drinker. Reviews the research done in the past on caffeine’s effects on health. Recommends a safe level of consumption at between 300‐400mg of caffeine per day which translates to four or five cups of average strength coffee.

35. Milk which does not come up to requirements is returned to the farmers, and this rule appears to be more stringently enforced by co‐operative societies than by private firms, the control over the farmer being greater in the case of the former than the latter. In most cases, morning milk and the milk of the previous evening arrive in the early morning at the creamery. These milks are not mixed at the farm but arrive in separate cans, the morning milk being warm and the evening milk cold on arrival. It may here be noted that milking is done at twelve‐hour intervals (5 a.m. and 5 p.m.) so that the composition of morning and evening milk shows very little variation. Where a creamery condenses full cream milk, morning milk is the milk preferred, and when possible this is the milk which is condensed.

The purpose of this paper is to determine the level of food additives, caffeine and total sugars in locally manufactured beverages in Mauritius and ascertain their compliance with national and international norms.

In total, 48 beverages: 21 soft drinks, 14 ice teas, 5 fruit drinks, 5 nonalcoholic sparkling drinks and 3 tonic waters were analysed for the level of sweeteners (aspartame, acesulfame K and saccharin), preservatives (benzoic and sorbic acid), colours (tartrazine, sunset yellow, quinoline yellow, allura red, amaranth, ponceau 4R, carmoisine, erythrosine, brilliant blue, green S and patent blue), citric acid, caffeine and total sugars. High-performance liquid chromatography methods used to quantify the levels of total sugars, caffeine and additives were validated against parameters such as linearity, recovery, accuracy, precision and limit of quantification.

Out of 48 beverages, 13 contained at least one sweetener. The most frequently used sweeteners were acesulfame K and aspartame. Benzoic acid was present in 27 samples (42.32–168.03 mg/L). Sorbic acid was present in 14 beverages (13.01–180.38 mg/L). Citric acid (0.7–4 g/L) was present in all the 48 beverages, while caffeine was present in 20 samples in the range of 14.01–129.42 mg/L. Nine samples contained at least one artificial colour and the most frequently used colours were tartrazine, sunset yellow, brilliant blue and carmoisine. The average level of total sugars present in the beverages was 10 g/100 ml. The validation parameters obtained showed evidence for method suitability.

Beverages sold by individuals on the street, small restaurants and markets were not analysed.

This study provides an overview of the chemical composition of soft drinks and their compliance with Food Regulations. It also paves the way to investigate weaknesses, knowledge, attitudes and practices of local manufacturers, which leads to non-adherence to Regulations regarding food additives.

The case, briefly reported in the last issue of BFJ, an appeal to a Milk and Dairies Tribunal arising out of a local authority's refusal to grant a licence to a milk distributor because he failed to comply with a requirement that he should provide protective curtains to his milk floats, was a rare and in many ways, an interesting event. The Tribunal in this case was set up under reg. 16(2) (f), Milk (Special Designation) Regulations, 1963, constituted in accordance with Part I, clause 2 (2), Schedule 4 of the Regulations. Part II outlines procedure for such tribunals. The Tribunal is similar to that authorized by S.30, Food and Drugs Act, 1955, which deals with the registration of dairymen, dairy farms and farmers, and the Milk and Dairies (General) Regulations, 1959. Part II, Schedule 2 of the Act provided for reference to a tribunal of appeals against refusal or cancellation of registration by the Ministry, but of producers only. A local authority's power to refuse to register or cancellation contained in Part I, Schedule 2 provided for no such reference and related to instances where “public health is or is likely to be endangered by any act or default” of such a person, who was given the right of appeal against refusal to register, etc., to a magistrates' court. No such limitation exists in respect of the revoking, suspending, refusal to renew a licence under the Milk (Special Designation) Regulations, 1963; an appeal against same lies to the Minister, who must refer the matter to a tribunal, if the person so requests. This occurred in the case under discussion.

10. In selecting the places which we visited our aim was to see the manufacture of condensed milk and other dairy products under different conditions and to obtain as representative an idea as possible of the circumstances under which the whole process, from the milking of the cow to the final stage of manufacture, was conducted. Accordingly we visited the following places:—