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The main objective of this paper is to illustrate an analytical view of different methods of 3D bioprinting, variations, formulations and characteristics of biomaterials. This review also aims to discover all the areas of applications and scopes of further improvement of 3D bioprinters in this era of the Fourth Industrial Revolution.

This paper reviewed a number of papers that carried evaluations of different 3D bioprinting methods with different biomaterials, using different pumps to print 3D scaffolds, living cells, tissue and organs. All the papers and articles are collected from different journals and conference papers from 2014 to 2022.

This paper briefly explains how the concept of a 3D bioprinter was developed from a 3D printer and how it affects the biomedical field and helps to recover the lack of organ donors. It also gives a clear explanation of three basic processes and different strategies of these processes and the criteria of biomaterial selection. This paper gives insights into how 3D bioprinters can be assisted with machine learning to increase their scope of application.

The chosen research approach may limit the generalizability of the research findings. As a result, researchers are encouraged to test the proposed hypotheses further.

This paper includes implications for developing 3D bioprinters, developing biomaterials and increasing the printability of 3D bioprinters.

This paper addresses an identified need by investigating how to enable 3D bioprinting performance.

Tissue engineering (TE) offers treatments for chronic, life threatening, degenerative illnesses and possibilities for restoring cellular or organ functions that have been lost due to injuries or hereditary conditions. However, a prerequisite for the use of TE products as part of future therapies is the development of strategies for safe and efficient supply chain management and versatile services spanning from product development to a follow‐up period of possibly decades. The present study aims to explore the future needs for services and extended supply chains for safe delivery of health care, procurement, distribution and long‐term follow‐up of TE products and therapies.

Studies in operational disciplines and coordination systems for different types of supply chains and service networks are used to formulate a framework for developing services throughout product lifecycle. Case examples of TE products are presented to demonstrate complexity, microbial risks, services and long‐term follow‐up. The role of logistics and the necessary services are identified for products classified into experimental, therapy and standard products.

The paper finds that, through the stages, the importance of logistics increases from an enabler to becoming a strategic tool, emphasizing logistics requirements in establishing a viable TE supply chain. New dimensions to existing service operations frameworks are needed where proactive tissue sourcing, long follow‐up periods, short shelf life and biological risks call for enforcing flexible services with tissue banks, detailed tracing, authorization and regulation.

The paper presents the discovery of the logistics services and service institutions that will become imperatives for the future success of TE products and therapies.

The debate over whether or not to allow the sale of human organs is compelling enough to warrant discussion. A literature review revealed much ethical discussion, but little discussion was found on economic outcomes related to donors and selling human organs. It was demonstrated in the literature how an increased organ supply will benefit recipients. If allowing the sale of organs is the way to increase the organ supply for the benefit of recipients, then, in order to demonstrate that donors will not be exploited, it must be demonstrated how, and if, such sales would benefit those donors. This study explores whether or not one should sell human organs. Using basic models, this study develops economic scenarios and outcomes related to the selling of human organs with particular focus on pricing and profitability in relation to donor benefit. Theoretical outcomes show that the donor will not benefit in the long run.

Cybernetics is presented in relation to the future of mankind as seen by the author in 1952. Cybernetics is considered, in the framework of the history of mankind, as generating a kind of continuation of biological evolution by the addition to each individual of new capacities of perception, communication and action. From a collective point of view it generates a composite organism with a giant nervous system covering the surface of the earth.

This paper aims to provide an insight into recent biomimetic sensor developments.

Following a brief introduction, this paper considers a number of specific sensor R&D activities which involve the use of differing biomimetic concepts, including the fabrication of artificial sensing organs, emulating human senses, novel uses of biological structures and systems exploiting biologically‐inspired behaviour.

This paper shows that a range of different biomimetic design concepts are being applied to sensors that respond to a range of physical, gaseous and chemical variables. Robust, multi‐sensor systems are being developed which emulate biologically‐inspired behaviour.

This paper provides an up to date technical review of a range of differing biomimetic sensor designs and concepts.

In the past decade, three-dimensional (3D) printing has gained attention in areas such as medicine, engineering, manufacturing art and most recently in education. In biomedical, the development of a wide range of biomaterials has catalysed the considerable role of 3D printing (3DP), where it functions as synthetic frameworks in the form of scaffolds, constructs or matrices. The purpose of this paper is to present the state-of-the-art literature coverage of 3DP applications in tissue engineering (such as customized scaffoldings and organs, and regenerative medicine).

This review focusses on various 3DP techniques and biomaterials for tissue engineering (TE) applications. The literature reviewed in the manuscript has been collected from various journal search engines including Google Scholar, Research Gate, Academia, PubMed, Scopus, EMBASE, Cochrane Library and Web of Science. The keywords that have been selected for the searches were 3 D printing, tissue engineering, scaffoldings, organs, regenerative medicine, biomaterials, standards, applications and future directions. Further, the sub-classifications of the keyword, wherever possible, have been used as sectioned/sub-sectioned in the manuscript.

3DP techniques have many applications in biomedical and TE (B-TE), as covered in the literature. Customized structures for B-TE applications are easy and cost-effective to manufacture through 3DP, whereas on many occasions, conventional technologies generally become incompatible. For this, this new class of manufacturing must be explored to further capabilities for many potential applications.

This review paper presents a comprehensive study of the various types of 3DP technologies in the light of their possible B-TE application as well as provides a future roadmap.

Bioprinting is a promising technology, which has gained a recent attention, for application in all aspects of human life and has specific advantages in different areas of medicines, especially in ophthalmology. The three-dimensional (3D) printing tools have been widely used in different applications, from surgical planning procedures to 3D models for certain highly delicate organs (such as: eye and heart). The purpose of this paper is to review the dedicated research efforts that so far have been made to highlight applications of 3D printing in the field of ophthalmology.

In this paper, the state-of-the-art review has been summarized for bioprinters, biomaterials and methodologies adopted to cure eye diseases. This paper starts with fundamental discussions and gradually leads toward the summary and future trends by covering almost all the research insights. For better understanding of the readers, various tables and figures have also been incorporated.

The usages of bioprinted surgical models have shown to be helpful in shortening the time of operation and decreasing the risk of donor, and hence, it could boost certain surgical effects. This demonstrates the wide use of bioprinting to design more precise biological research models for research in broader range of applications such as in generating blood vessels and cardiac tissue. Although bioprinting has not created a significant impact in ophthalmology, in recent times, these technologies could be helpful in treating several ocular disorders in the near future.

This review work emphasizes the understanding of 3D printing technologies, in the light of which these can be applied in ophthalmology to achieve successful treatment of eye diseases.

This paper aims to focus on the modern development of bionics and linking new technologies with the human nervous system or other biological systems that cause changes of the human biological structure.

The paper is a discursive evaluation of technological progress and new systems where computers and machines integrate, making a single matrix entity – the cyborg. Here fundamental questions arise, such as what it means to be human and what is (descriptive aspect) and what should be (normative aspect) a human being?

The paper argues for the value of twenty-first century human enhancement techniques and other emerging technologies that promised to “help” humans become “more than human”, trying to create human beings with greatly enhanced abilities, to improve human mental and physical characteristics and capacities. Modern man is gradually disappearing as a natural being and increasingly turning into an artificial creature “cyborg” that leads into the question, what will ultimately remain human in a human body?

The paper contributes to the existing debates about further development of cyborgisation and examines boundaries that will strictly divide man from a cyborg in the near future. In order to protect man from the omnipotence of technology and its unethical application is necessary to establish cyborgoethics that would determine the implementation of an artificial boundary in the natural body.

The purpose of this paper is to describe a mechanical equilibrium model of a one‐end‐fixed type rubberless artificial muscle and the feasibility of this model for control of the rubberless artificial muscle. This mechanical equilibrium model expresses the relation between inner pressure, contraction force, and contraction displacement. The model validity and usability were confirmed experimentally.

Position control of a one‐end‐fixed type rubberless artificial muscle antagonistic drive system was conducted using this mechanical equilibrium model. This model contributes to adjustment of the antagonistic force.

The derived mechanical equilibrium model shows static characteristics of the rubberless artificial muscle well. Furthermore, it experimentally confirmed the possibility of realizing position control with force adjustment of the rubberless artificial muscle antagonistic derive system. The mechanical equilibrium model is useful to control the rubberless artificial muscle.

This paper reports the realization of advanced control of the rubberless artificial muscle using the derived mechanical equilibrium model.

The purpose of this paper is to study the effect of laser fluence on the post‐transfer cell viability of human colon cancer cells (HT‐29) during a typical biofabrication process, matrix‐assisted pulsed‐laser evaporation direct‐write (MAPLE DW).

The post‐transfer cell viability in MAPLE DW depends on various operation conditions such as the applied laser fluence. HT‐29 cell was selected as a model mammalian cell to investigate the effect of laser fluence on the post‐transfer cell viability. MAPLE DW‐based HT‐29 cell direct writing was implemented using an ArF excimer laser under a wide range of laser fluence. Trypan blue dye‐exclusion was used to test the post‐transfer cell viability.

It has been observed that: the HT‐29 cell viability decreases from 95 to 78 percent as the laser fluence increases from 258 to 1,482 mJ/cm²; and cell injury in this study is mainly due to the process‐induced mechanical stress during the cell droplet formation and landing processes while the effects of thermal influence and ultraviolet radiation are below the level of detection.

This paper reveals some interesting relationships between the laser fluence and the post‐transfer mammalian cell viability and injury, and the resulting knowledge of these process‐related relationships helps the wide implementation of MAPLE DW‐based biofabrication. Post‐transfer cell injury reversibility and cell proliferation capacity need to be further elucidated.

This paper will help the wide implementation of cell direct‐write technologies including MAPLE DW to fabricate biological constructs as artificial tissues/organs and bio‐sensing devices.

The shortage of donor organs and the need of various bio‐sensing devices have significantly prompted the development of various biological material‐based direct‐write technologies. Process‐induced cell injury happens during fabricating of biological constructs using different direct‐write technologies including MAPLE DW. The post‐transfer cell viability is a key index to evaluate the feasibility and efficiency of any biofabrication technique. This paper has investigated the effect of laser fluence on the post‐transfer HT‐29 cell viability and injury. The knowledge from this study will help effectively and efficiently fabricate various biological constructs for organ printing and biosensor fabrication applications.