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The purpose of this paper is to investigate aggregated apparel demand in the USA and Japan and to assess the positions of apparel products manufactured in the USA and Japan in comparison to imported apparel.

Based on Porter's industry competitiveness theory as a theoretical framework, the two‐step demand analysis, time‐series market analysis and elasticities of demand using “Almost ideal demand system” was conducted in order to reveal the overall market conditions of the USA and Japan and the market positions of domestically manufactured and imported apparel products in both countries.

Regardless of the country of origin, US consumers were price conscious in purchasing apparel products because they decreased purchase for not only domestically produced products but also imported products when prices increased. However, Japanese consumers' price concept toward apparel products was dual. They increased their purchase of domestically made products if the price was higher, and decreased their purchase of imported products.

This paper provides a framework for the apparel industry competitiveness assessment with regard to the demand‐side analysis of Porter's competitiveness theory. Moreover, there is no research in the current literature that assessed the US apparel demand with regard to industry competitiveness and a cross national view, especially compared with the Japanese apparel industry.

This study investigates if females fashion leaders and fashion followers differ in their attitudes toward buying imported and domestic apparel products. A sample of 283 female consumers between 18 and 25 years of age completed a mailed questionnaire. Repeated measures analysis of variance and t‐tests were performed to determine if differences exist between fashion followers and leaders regarding their attitudes toward buying domestic and imported apparel. Results showed that fashion followers have the same overall attitude toward buying American or imported apparel. However, fashion leaders have a more positive attitude toward buying imported apparel than buying domestic apparel. In addition, fashion followers and fashion leaders have similar attitudes toward buying American apparel, but fashion leaders have a significantly more positive attitude than followers toward buying imported apparel.

Apparel exports by OECD countries and imports of developing countries, the counter‐flow of international trade in apparel, were examined. Application of a gravity model indicated that proximity was important in determining the marketing destinations of apparel exports of OECD countries. There was a large variation in apparel imports to the developing countries from the developed countries, and while generally increasing, there were also large fluctuations over time. The trade flow was explained by differentiation of products and inequality of income in the developing countries. Regression analysis was used to determine the factors which influenced apparel imports of developing countries from OECD countries. The result indicated that income level was the most important determinant, and that apparel imports were income elastic. Market conditions, and remarkably, market barrier, had no significant impact.

As a world leader in the textiles and clothing trade, Hong Kong has played an important role in world denim products trade. To obtain a sound understanding of the current status and position of Hong Kong in the world denim trade, the authors carried out a comprehensive statistical survey of the Hong Kong denim industry. This paper reports detailed analyses on the production, sales and trade of denim products in Hong Kong. The analysis on trade covers imports, domestic exports and re‐exports of denim fabric and apparel products.

The purpose of this study is to examine the reasons that Greek consumers purchase imported high fashion apparel over Greek designers high fashion apparel. The objective of the research is to detect the underlying factors that affect their purchasing behaviour.

Qualitative research was conducted through discussions with consumer focus groups, all purchasers of imported high fashion apparel. Quantitative research was undertaken by means of a questionnaire with 28 items referring to the reasons for purchasing imported high fashion apparel. The sample consisted of 200 high fashion consumers from the city of Larissa, Greece. Data analysis includes descriptive statistics, reliability, as well as factor analysis by principal component analysis with Varimax rotation.

Results indicate that the consumers perceive that the imported high fashion apparel have better aesthetics, a better line and are produced from quality textiles, compared to the domestic high fashion apparel. Four factors derived underpinned the purchasing reasons of imported high fashion apparel: “status and image”, “quality of the product”, “marketing reasons” and “in fashion”.

This research was exploratory in nature and employed a non‐probability sampling method. Future research should be carried out to confirm the findings of the current study.

This study provides a useful source of information, which can be used by Greek high fashion apparel designers regarding the reasons why Greek customers of high fashion apparel purchase imported over domestic ones. This paper suggests which elements Greek designers of high fashion apparel should focus upon in order to gain a larger market share.

This study is important in terms that it is the first one to explore the reasons for purchasing imported high fashion apparel over domestic ones in Greece. It highlights 28 reasons (items) derived from qualitative research. In addition it suggests appropriate quality and marketing actions to be undertaken by Greek high fashion apparel designers.

The purpose of this paper is to confirm empirically the existence of a US apparel import intermediary (AII) identity crisis, and to provide a detailed descriptive profile of AIIs, differentiating them from apparel firms not primarily engaged in importing activities.

A survey study was conducted using a national sample of US AIIs. Based on these firms' executives' responses, a firm identity issue was analyzed and a detailed profile of these firms' business characteristics was developed, using frequency comparisons.

The study confirmed that US AIIs are currently experiencing an identity crisis, as nearly half of the study respondents misclassified themselves as apparel manufacturers or other business types, suggesting a significant distortion in US Economic Census data. The study also provided a descriptive profile of US AIIs, including geographic location and other business operation characteristics.

Three fourths of the survey respondents were located in the state of New York. Whether most US AIIs truly reside in New York cannot be known with certainty. Generalization of the study findings to a greater population should be cautious.

Confirmation of an AII identity crisis suggests both aggregate and individual firm‐level impacts on import activities. The study offers a new term, “intermediary”, to replace the US Census Bureau term “wholesaler” to accurately reflect the industry's transformation.

The study provides the first empirical support for a US AII identity crisis. The detailed profile of US AIIs offers industry data not available prior to this study.

This paper analyzes the effects of the expiration of the Multi Fiber Arrangement (MFA), which ended quota restrictions on US textile and apparel imports in 2005, on the sourcing of US apparel. We test if the realignment in trade following the phase out of quotas can be explained by comparative advantage and market size.

We use a gravity framework to investigate the role of comparative advantage (labor costs) and other factors such as exporter size, PTAs and tariff reductions on the pattern of US apparel imports. Detailed data on quotas by country-product pair are used for the purpose.

Our empirical results show a significant increase in imports from large quota constrained countries once the MFA ended. Moreover, the pattern of trade seems to favor low wage countries that have a comparative advantage in producing apparel, which is highly labor intensive.

The end of quotas removed a major distorting factor in US apparel trade. This study examines the role of trade theory in the changing pattern of apparel imports that followed the end of the MFA. We use a gravity framework to test the theory of comparative advantage and the role of exporter size. Previous studies on the end of the MFA and its effects, do not examine the causal factors behind the realignment of US apparel trade.

Given the heated academic and policy debate regarding the fate of garment manufacturing in a high-wage developed economy in the 21st century, this study aims to explore the production and export strategies of apparel “Made in Ireland.”

A logistic regression analysis of 4,000 apparel items at the stock keeping unit (SKU) level sold in the market from January 2018 to December 2021 was conducted to evaluate the production and export strategy of apparel “Made in Ireland” versus foreign-made imported items sold in Ireland.

The statistical results showed that Ireland’s apparel manufacturing sector survived the market competition by leveraging non-price competing factors, such as distinct product assortment, cultural heritage, history and traditional craftsmanship.

The findings challenged the conclusions of the classic trade and economic development theories regarding the trajectory of the garment manufacturing sector and called for a rethink about the strategies for expanding garment manufacturing in a high-wage developed country in today’s global economy.

Protectionist legislation has experienced a resurgence in the US. The legislation aimed at the textile and apparel industry has proceeded the furthest. It serves as an excellent case to examine the arguments for and against protectionism, the strategies for textile and apparel marketers should such legislation be enacted and alternatives to protectionist legislation. The possibility that some form of legislation may succeed is high. Both policy‐makers and managers in potentially affected industries need to be aware of strategies and problems after a trade enforcement act.

At the heart of the African Growth and Opportunity Act (AGOA) are substantial trade preferences, which coupled with the Generalised System of Preferences (GSP) grant a wide range of goods produced in qualified African countries duty-free access to the USA. To be AGOA-eligible, countries are assessed annually on their progress in undertaking appropriate economic, institutional and human rights reforms. This paper seeks to cover new grounds by exploring whether exports of apparel to US crowds out EU-15's imports from Africa.

This paper employs the gravity model to gauge trade displacement effects from the EU to the US due to AGOA, and whether the more relaxed special waiver embodied in AGOA's apparel provision causes non-knitted exports to EU-15 to be crowded out. The basic gravity model, which posits that trade between two countries is positively influenced by the economic size and negatively affected by the distance between them, is augmented with other trade inhibiting and trade facilitating variables.

The gravity model provides no evidence of trade displacement but, instead, provides support for the hypothesis of complementarity of African exports to the two key markets. A strong positive impact of the bilateral trade between the US and Africa on the EU–African trade is evident mainly before the phasing out of the Agreement on Textiles and Clothing (ATC). This paper finds that Special Rule beneficiaries' exports to the two markets still complement each other, but for every percentage increase in exports to the USA, there is a less than proportionate increase in exports to EU-15 indicating a higher utilisation of the special waiver. This paper also provides evidence for complementary apparel exports to both LDCs (least developing countries) and non-LDCs, with stronger effects on non-LDCs and the non-knitted sector.

Future work could consider the longer lifespan of AGOA following its latest renewal in 2015. This would allow one to also capture the ongoing changes in EU trade arrangements in particular implementation of Economic Partnership Agreements (EPAs). This new agreement comes with more flexible rules of origin requiring single transformation step instead of the double step. As most African nations are still in the process of adopting EPAs, new research can shed more light on complementary or displacement effects once these agreements are adopted.

Since the main intent of AGOA is to enhance Africa's integration into the global economy by encouraging trade and investment, generate employment and increase productivity and per capita income growth, its impact on Special Rule beneficiaries' exports to the US has been extensively examined. However, the indirect effects of this trade agreement on African exports to other key markets providing similar preferences such as the EU has not been fully explored. This study also covers new grounds by examining whether there has been any apparel trade displacement from the EU to the US, as a result of the Act, over 2001–2016 period right from AGOA's inception.