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1 – 10 of 360Gary N. Powell and D. Anthony Butterfield
The purpose of this paper is to examine the role of psychological androgyny, a construct that represents a combination of masculinity and femininity, in explaining changes in…
Abstract
Purpose
The purpose of this paper is to examine the role of psychological androgyny, a construct that represents a combination of masculinity and femininity, in explaining changes in descriptions of a good manager over time.
Design/methodology/approach
Samples of the same two populations were surveyed at four different points in time spanning four decades (N = 1,818).
Findings
Good-manager descriptions became increasingly similar in masculinity and femininity over time, or increasingly androgynous according to the balance conceptualization of androgyny. However, both good-manager masculinity and good-manager femininity declined over time, with masculinity declining to a greater extent, which accounted for the greater similarity in these scores. As a result, according to the high masculinity/high femininity conceptualization of androgyny, good-manager descriptions actually became decreasingly androgynous and more “undifferentiated”. Overall, the trend in leader prototypes over time was toward less emphasis on traits associated with members of either sex.
Research limitations/implications
Limitations of two alternative methods of analyses and the survey instrument are acknowledged. What constituted a good manager may have depended on the context. Further scholarly attention to the concept of an undifferentiated leadership style is recommended.
Practical implications
People may be moving beyond leader prototypes based on the simple application of gender stereotypes. Changes in leader prototypes over the past four decades may contribute to enhancements in women’s societal status.
Social implications
Leader prototypes may disadvantage women less than in the past.
Originality/value
Results suggest that the role of androgyny in leader prototypes is declining according to the high masculinity/high femininity conceptualization.
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Gary N. Powell, D. Anthony Butterfield and Xueting Jiang
The purpose of this paper is to examine perceptions of the “Ideal President” (IP) and presidential candidates in the 2016 US presidential election in relation to gender…
Abstract
Purpose
The purpose of this paper is to examine perceptions of the “Ideal President” (IP) and presidential candidates in the 2016 US presidential election in relation to gender stereotypes and leader prototypes.
Design/methodology/approach
In all, 378 business students assessed perceptions of either the IP or a particular candidate on measures of masculinity and femininity. Androgyny (balance of masculinity and femininity) and hypermasculinity (extremely high masculinity) scores were calculated from these measures.
Findings
The IP was perceived as higher in masculinity than femininity, but less similar to the male (Donald Trump) than the female (Hillary Clinton) candidate. IP perceptions were more androgynous than in the 2008 US presidential election. Respondents’ political preferences were related to their IP perceptions on hypermasculinity, which in turn were consistent with perceptions of their preferred candidate.
Social implications
Trump’s high hypermasculinity scores may explain why he won the electoral college vote, whereas Clinton’s being perceived as more similar to the IP, and IP perceptions’ becoming more androgynous over time, may explain why she won the popular vote.
Originality/value
The study extends the literature on the linkages between gender stereotypes and leader prototypes in two respects. Contrary to the general assumption of a shared leader prototype, it demonstrates the existence of different leader prototypes according to political preference. The hypermasculinity construct, which was introduced to interpret leader prototypes in light of Trump’s candidacy and election, represents a valuable addition to the literature with potentially greater explanatory power than masculinity in some situations.
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Gary N. Powell, D. Anthony Butterfield and Xueting Jiang
The purpose of this study was to explore issues of gender and diversity raised by the 2020 US presidential election.
Abstract
Purpose
The purpose of this study was to explore issues of gender and diversity raised by the 2020 US presidential election.
Design/methodology/approach
Samples from two populations (n = 667) described either an ideal president or one of the major-party candidates for president (Donald Trump and Joe Biden) or vice president (Mike Pence and Kamala Harris) on an instrument that assessed self-ascribed masculinity and femininity. Androgyny was calculated as the difference between masculinity and femininity; the closer the score to zero, the more androgynous the candidate.
Findings
The ideal president was viewed as androgynous (i.e. balanced in masculine and feminine traits) rather than masculine as in previous studies of presidential leadership. Compared to the White male candidates, Harris, a woman of color, displayed the most androgynous profile. The Democratic ticket represented a “balanced” team, with one candidate (Biden) higher on femininity and the other (Harris) higher on masculinity; in essence, an androgynous ticket. In contrast, the Republican ticket (Trump and Pence) represented a decidedly masculine ticket. Ideal president profiles differed according to respondents’ gender and preferred president.
Practical implications
The Democrats winning the election with an androgynous ticket suggests that a more level playing field for female vis-à-vis male candidates for political leader roles may be arriving.
Originality/value
The finding of an ideal president as androgynous rather than masculine is an original contribution to the literature on presidential leadership.
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Gary N. Powell, D. Anthony Butterfield and Xueting Jiang
The purpose of this paper is to examine stability and change in the linkage between gender and managerial stereotypes over a five-decade period.
Abstract
Purpose
The purpose of this paper is to examine stability and change in the linkage between gender and managerial stereotypes over a five-decade period.
Design/methodology/approach
Samples from two populations (n = 2347) described a “good manager” on an instrument that assessed masculinity and femininity during each of the past five decades.
Findings
Good-manager descriptions exhibited a decreasing emphasis on masculinity and increasing emphasis on femininity over time, culminating in an androgynous profile, or a balance of masculine and feminine traits, for each population in the most recently collected data.
Practical implications
Although women face systemic barriers in the managerial ranks of organizations, a change in managerial stereotypes to an androgynous rather than masculine profile would represent one less barrier for them to overcome.
Social implications
If managers come to be held to an androgynous standard in their behavior regardless of their gender, there would be a more level playing field for candidates for open managerial positions, rather than one tilted in favor of men.
Originality/value
The analysis of data from samples of the same population types using the same measures systematically over five decades, and the provocative finding of an androgynous profile of a good manager in the most recently collected data, are original contributions to the literature.
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The purpose of this paper is to explore how Muslim men in Kuwait negotiate their luxury fashion consumption (considered a feminized practice in Kuwait) without compromising their…
Abstract
Purpose
The purpose of this paper is to explore how Muslim men in Kuwait negotiate their luxury fashion consumption (considered a feminized practice in Kuwait) without compromising their masculine identity.
Design/methodology/approach
The data were collected through 108 qualitative questionnaires and two unstructured in-depth interviews. Non-participant observations and informal conversations took place as part of an ongoing ethnographic study on luxury fashion consumption in Kuwait.
Findings
Within the feminized space of fashion, accessories (such as shoes, wallets, watches, sunglasses, etc.) seem to allow Muslim men an androgynous space (consumer constructions of gendered spaces to be equally masculine and feminine) to be fashionable yet maintain a masculine identity.
Research limitations/implications
Further research may explore the negotiation of androgyny among men who consume luxury fashion clothing or conspicuously feminized fashion (such as jewellery and handbags) in highly gendered societies. Limitations include reliance on questionnaire data (lacks depth insights) and narrow consumer (Muslim men in Kuwait).
Practical implications
Marketers of luxury fashion brands in Kuwait should focus on fashion accessories when targeting males. Advertising needs to shift gender perceptions of traditionally feminine fashion (such as handbags or jewellery) towards androgyny to attract male consumers. Religiosity of consumers is an important segmentation basis, and Muslim men who are less religious may be more open towards fashion consumption.
Originality/value
This research proposes the notion of androgynous spaces, contributing to gender within marketing theory and practice.
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Kiefe Heibormi Passah and Nagari Mohan Panda
The paper presents a structural model to explain the relationship between various gender-role orientations (GROs) and motivational antecedents leading to entrepreneurial intention…
Abstract
Purpose
The paper presents a structural model to explain the relationship between various gender-role orientations (GROs) and motivational antecedents leading to entrepreneurial intention (EI). It examines the influence of GRO in the formation of EI among educated youths of Northeast India.
Design/methodology/approach
Using a structural equation modelling approach, the hypothesized model is tested on a sample of 642 post-graduate students from four different universities in Northeast India, a developing region with unique socio-cultural diversity. The mediating role of EI antecedents on the relationship between GRO and EI was examined after establishing the reliability and validity of the measurement model.
Findings
Results from the analysis support the hypothesized structural relationship confirming the influence of GRO on EI. The study also finds that androgynous individuals have a higher EI than their masculine or feminine counterparts.
Research limitations/implications
The study contributes to the understanding of EI determinants from a GRO perspective, especially in the industrially backward region of an emerging economy. It adds to the existing literature by empirically proving the role of gender orientation. The results have several policy implications for educational institutions and policymakers in emerging economies.
Originality/value
The paper re-examines the predictive value of the theory of planned behaviour (TPB) model from a GRO perspective and compares indirect effects of gender identity through motivational antecedents on EI. Whilst TPB predicted EI in Western and developed countries, using a more diverse sample provides strong empirical evidence in the context of a developing region.
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Theo Lieven and Christian Hildebrand
– The purpose of this paper is to examine the influence of brand gender on brand equity across countries and cultures in various product domains.
Abstract
Purpose
The purpose of this paper is to examine the influence of brand gender on brand equity across countries and cultures in various product domains.
Design/methodology/approach
Consumers from ten countries on four continents rated 20 global brands, leading to a total of 16,934 cross-clustered observations. Linear mixed effect models examined a series of nested models, testing three novel brand gender effects with respect to the impact of androgynous brands on brand equity and the moderating role of consumers’ biological sex as well as individualistic and collectivistic cultures. Additional robustness tests provide support on form, metric, and scalar invariance of the measurements and the robustness of the observed effects across countries and cultures.
Findings
The current research reveals that androgynous brands generate higher brand equity relative to exclusively masculine, exclusively feminine, and undifferentiated brands. The authors also show a brand gender congruence effect such that male consumers value masculine brands higher than females while female consumers value more feminine brands higher than males. Finally, highly masculine brands generate higher brand equity in more individualistic countries whereas highly feminine brands generate higher brand equity in more collectivistic countries.
Originality/value
This is the first research examining and demonstrating the positive influence of androgynous brand gender perceptions on brand equity. To the best of the authors’ knowledge, this is also the first paper examining brand gender effects across countries and cultures.
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Anna Perez-Quintana, Esther Hormiga, Joan Carles Martori and Rafa Madariaga
The purpose of this paper is to explore the relationship between sex, gender-role orientation (GRO) and the decision to become an entrepreneur. Because of the fact that gender…
Abstract
Purpose
The purpose of this paper is to explore the relationship between sex, gender-role orientation (GRO) and the decision to become an entrepreneur. Because of the fact that gender stereotypes have influences on the preferences and choices of individuals in their career, this research proposes the following objectives: to determine the existence of gender stereotypes that have an influence on human behaviour and specially in this research context; to measure the GRO of each individual; and, finally, to analyze the relationship between the entrepreneurial intention, the sex and the GRO of participants.
Design/methodology/approach
Based on a questionnaire, this study follows the Bem Sex-Role Inventory methodology to perform an analysis by means of the multiple regression model. This study uses two different samples of 760 students who attend business administration and management undergraduate programs.
Findings
The outcomes show that GRO is a better predictor of the decision to become an entrepreneur than biological sex. Moreover, the results for the whole sample confirm the relationship between masculine and androgynous GRO with entrepreneurial intention, whereas there is also evidence of feminine GRO when we consider only women.
Research limitations/implications
In line with previous studies that link GRO and entrepreneurship, in this paper, the authors have analyzed business administration students’ view to draw conclusions. The next step is to apply the gender perspective to advance in the analysis of the features that characterize business managers. Likewise, it is interesting to continue the study of gender social construction in entrepreneurship focusing on the discourse used by entrepreneurs or in the media.
Practical implications
The conclusions of this study are relevant for educators and trainers of future entrepreneurs. The entrepreneurial archetype evolves from masculinity to androgyny. This may help women entrepreneurial intentions. Emphasizing androgynous traits is a way to disable male stereotype domination and threat. This possibility is open, not only for educators who have the ability to improve this perception but also for media, advertising companies and women to push and value female entrepreneurship.
Social implications
The implicit dynamism in GROs leads to the possibility of changes in workplace views and especially in entrepreneurship as a career option. In this way, it is possible that the general belief that the company owners are men may change. Improving women entrepreneurs’ social visibility, which acts as “role models” may increase female entrepreneur intention. Moreover, emphasis on the androgynous entrepreneur traits in forums at different levels of education, in entrepreneur training activities, will certainly increase the women entrepreneur intention if they perceive they have positively valued traits for entrepreneurship.
Originality/value
Selecting 31 items related with the entrepreneur person, this work tests empirically their gender categorization. This procedure allows to measure participants’ GRO following the four gender categories and classify them by sex. Finally, the authors analyze the influence the GRO and sex exert over entrepreneurial intention and provide empirical evidence in favour that GRO is a more robust variable to predict entrepreneurial intention than sex, and androgynous GRO is the most influential category on entrepreneurial intention.
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Various research studies in the past have found biological gender to be a differentiator for money attitudes. However, the beliefs and attitudes that people have towards money can…
Abstract
Purpose
Various research studies in the past have found biological gender to be a differentiator for money attitudes. However, the beliefs and attitudes that people have towards money can also be the result of the gender socialisation, which may have a greater impact on how one relates to money. Since, gender is an important aspect for understanding financial choices and decisions, it becomes pertinent to learn as to which aspect of gender, the biological or the psychological, impact the money attitudes and beliefs that a person holds. The purpose of this paper is to address this issue.
Design/methodology/approach
This empirical work attempts to understand gender differences in money attitudes from the biological gender and psychological gender perspective. The Bem Sex Role Inventory (BSRI) and Tang's money ethic scale (MES) were used for this study. The hypotheses raised were tested on a sample of 224 respondents from India.
Findings
The results suggested that money attitudes can be better understood when seen from the lens of psychological gender and not biological gender. Further, androgyny individuals were found to exhibit more balance in their money attitude dimensions than masculine or feminine individuals.
Originality/value
Belief and attitudes towards money would impact how contented people are with the compensation they receive, their financial planning choices and also their financial well-being. This insightful study adds to the scant literature that exists on understanding money attitudes from psychological gender perspective and would pave the way for more work in this area.
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Previous leadership studies indicate that stereotypically masculine behaviours characterize task‐oriented leadership style and that stereotypically feminine behaviours…
Abstract
Previous leadership studies indicate that stereotypically masculine behaviours characterize task‐oriented leadership style and that stereotypically feminine behaviours (relations‐oriented leadership style) are devalued. However, it has been frequently observed in the past that organizational goals could not be exclusively achieved by either masculine or feminine characteristics of leaders. Suggests that an integration rather than a polarization becomes necessary for leaders and organizations. That is, an androgynous leadership style can be the most appropriate for achieving high performance in many organizations.
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