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AS a preliminary to the detail description of the Harrier V/S.T.O.L. Operational Trainer — designated Harrier T. Mk. 2 — it is worth recalling that Hawker Siddeley first made proposals for a dual version of the P.1127 as early as September 1960 (Fig. 1). However, due to the relatively small number of early P.1127 and Kestrel aircraft, efforts to introduce a trainer proved abortive until the Harrier G.R. Mk. 1 production order materialised, following the batch of six Harrier development single seatcr aircraft. A feasibility study for a V/S.T.O.L. Dual Version Harrier was submitted to MinTech in September 1965. This was followed up by a project study in April 1967, which culminated in firm orders for two development two‐seater aircraft, to be followed by a batch of production aircraft.

TWENTY‐ONE years devoted to the development of ejection seats, 24,000 seats built for more than forty nations and now one thousand lives saved—that is the proud record of the Martin‐Baker Aircraft Company. To coincide with these achievements, the following article describes the technical development of the range of seats—from the first swinging arm concept through the early manually‐operated seat to the rocket‐assisted completely automatic zero/zero ejection seats of today. From whatever standpoint Martin‐Baker's record is examined, the result is impressive. In terms of mechanical engineering, a series of ingenious features allied to robust design have resulted in ejection seats of unparalleled performance yet renowned for their simplicity and reliability. In terms of sales, this comparatively small firm has, in effect, conquered the world and won substantial export contracts—not least those for over 7,000 seats for the United States armed forces. In human terms, the company has won the grateful thanks of all those aircrew members—a long roll of highly‐skilled and dedicated young men whom some might call the cream of manhood—who but for Martin‐Baker ejection seats would have perished. Small wonder that the name Martin‐Baker has become synonymous with successful ejection.

Real flight is cognitively demanding; accordingly, both indicators and display panel layout should be user-friendly to improve pilot-aircraft interaction. Poor pilot-interface interactions in aircrafts could result in accidents. Although a general reason of accidents is improper displays, relatively few studies were conducted on interfaces. This study aims to present an optimization model to create intuitively integrated user-friendly cockpit interfaces.

Subjectivity within most usability evaluation techniques could bring about interface design problems. A priori information about indicator’s possible locations may be available or unavailable. Thus different analytical approaches must be applied for modifications and new interface designs. Relative layout design (RLD) model was developed and used in new interface designs to optimize locations of indicators. This model was based on layout optimization and constructed in accordance with design requirements, ergonomic considerations with the pilot preferences. RLD model optimizes interface design by deploying indicators to the best locations to improve usability of display panel, pilot-aircraft interaction and flight safety.

Optimum interfaces for two problem instances were gathered by RLD model in 15.77 CPU(s) with 10 indicators and 542.51 CPU(s) with 19 indicators. A comparison between relative and existing cockpit interfaces reveals that locations of six navigation and four mechanical system indicators are different. The differences may stem from pilots’ preferences and relativity constraints. Both interfaces are more similar for the central part of the display panel. The objective function value of relative interface design (Opt: 527938) is far better than existing interface (737100). The RLD model improved usability of existing interface (28.61 per cent considering decrease in the objective function values from 737100 to 527938.

Future cockpit and new helicopter interface designs may involve RLD model as an alternative interface design tool. Furthermore, other layout optimization problems, e.g. circuit boards, microchips and engines, etc. could be handled in a more realistic manner by RLD model.

Originality and impact of this study related to development and employment of a new optimization model (RLD) on cockpit interface design for the first time. Engineering requirements, human factors, ergonomics and pilots’ preferences are simultaneously considered in the RLD model. The subjectivity within usability evaluation techniques could be diminished in this way. The contributions of RLD model to classical facility layout models are relativity constraints with the physical constrictions and ergonomic objective function weights. Novelty of this paper is the development and employment of a new optimization model (RLD) to locate indicators.

The purpose of this paper is to highlight state-of-the-art digital human modeling applications in aviation and aerospace industry, generate research interest and promote application of digital human modeling technology among audience of diverse background including researchers, students, trainees, etc. in academia and industry; designers; engineers; and ergonomists associated with aviation and aerospace sectors.

Comprehensive literature search was performed and, subsequently, all publications identified were studied thoroughly at least by abstracts. Available information has been segregated under different headings and depicted systematically for easy understanding by readers.

Virtual human modeling technology has been used in assessing reach and accessibility in aircraft cockpits, creating accurate posture libraries, performing vision analysis for pilots, determining design modifications to accommodate female users, predicting probable pilot behavior in proposed cockpit design, simulating air flow and heat transfer in fighter plane’s cockpit, assessing comfort of airplane passenger seats, maintenance studies, human spaceflight training, verifying component accessibility, investigating impact of space suit parts and harnesses, etc. Traditional approach for ergonomic investigations (involving costly physical mockups and trials with real humans) can be effectively replaced by evaluations facilitated by digital mockups and digital humans.

Being a review paper, the present manuscript is purely academic in nature.

The present paper represents critical review (with up to date references), leading to a comprehensive knowledge body about application of digital human modeling in aviation and aerospace industry. Avenues still to be explored have been identified and future research directions have been given aiming at aviation and aerospace completely human centric.

Cooperation of a pilot with an automated aircraft control and monitoring systems is a problem which should be solved designing the whole system. The method of design, which creates an assistant of a pilot, is the purpose of this study.

An analysis of human factors shows demands for working environment. An integration method for various technological systems and algorithms is searched.

It is possible to make the whole system to become a pilot assistant, which has ability to exchange information with pilot by a dialogue. Structural flexibility is obtained in multi-agent system structure.

Proposed approach is a solution of how to integrate increasing amount of aircraft systems. It is expected that new form of cooperation fits to human features. Proposed methodology solves problem of simultaneous control by two controllers and cooperative making decisions.

Dialogue between human and the system proposed in this solution will change perception of machines.

New abilities of machines and proposition of their realisation are presented. Presented solution of simultaneous control and decision-making during aircraft control is a novel approach to human–machine cooperation.

The main purpose of this study is to introduce the pilots’ load model and developed concept of load measuring system for operator load management.

In future aeronautical system, the role of operators (pilots and air traffic controllers [ATCOs]) will be in transition from active controlling to passive monitoring. Therefore, the operators’ load (task, information, work and mental) model was developed. There were developed measuring systems integrating into the pilot and ATCOs working environment eye tracking system outside measuring equipment. Operator load management was created by using the measurement.

In future system depending on time and automation level, the role of information and mental load will be increased. In flight simulator practice, developed load management method serves as a good tool for improving the quality of pilot training. According to the test results, the load monitoring and management system increase the safety of operators’ action in an emergency situation.

The developed method were tested in two flight simulators (one developed for scientific investigation and other one applied for pilot training) and ATM management laboratory.

By deployment of the develop load monitoring and management system, the safety of aircraft flights and air transport management will be increased, especially in an emergency situation.

People and society’s acceptance of future highly automated system will be increased.

The analysis focuses on the following: developing operator’s load model as improved situation awareness model of Endsley, developing monitoring system integrated into operator’s working environment, creating load management system.

A temperature probe for use in an air stream for measuring the air temperature plus the adiabatic temperature rise thereof, the probe comprising a body having a chamber provided with an air receiving inlet facing forwardly in said stream, there being spaced ports in the periphery of the body communicating with the chamber allowing a limited escape of air from the rear portion of the chamber, said inlet and port means being related in capacity so that the entering air is brought substantially to rest in the chamber, the body having an insulating chamber in surrounding relation to the first chamber and ports communicating with the insulating chamber to allow a limited air flow therethrough, means on at least one wall of the insulating chamber for preventing heat conduction there‐through, and a temperature sensitive device in said chamber.

A new range of solid carbide cutters to meet the most exacting industrial conditions has been announced by the Fenn Tool & Gauge Co. The first items in the Fetoga range, as it is called, include two‐ and three‐flute slot drills and four‐flute end mills.

Aerospace engineers investigating new high‐performance heat‐resistant alloys for further gas turbine engines are optimistic about titanium aluminides. If the alloys can be made stronger, titanium aluminides are prime candidates to replace conventional titanium and lower temperature nickel‐base superalloys, which researchers believe lack the heat‐resistant properties that will be required from the next generation of hypersonic aerospace vehicles.