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We aim to explore to what extent and how pro-poor PPP projects engage with local communities and what the possibilities are for the communities to become genuine partners with governments, businesses and civil society organizations (CSOs). We look into three different PPP projects funded by the Dutch international cooperation that emphasize the pro-poor aspects in Africa and find patterns of how local communities are positioned in each project. The analysis of the three projects indicates that the existing pro-poor PPP projects deal with local communities as either mere beneficiaries, business partners with substantial brokering by CSOs, or those who potentially lead the projects. The difference stems from how a PPP project allows local communities to participate and balance the relationship between the project’s profit maximization and benefit-sharing for the poor. Our findings can be used to evaluate pro-poor PPP projects by reference to its local development relevance. They also show possibilities for local communities to identify their positions vis-à-vis large-scale investment projects and reflect on what pro-poor projects actually mean. The importance of PPP projects to become pro-poor and enhance its local development relevance has been widely discussed; however, the actual positionality of the poor within PPP projects remains unclear. In this chapter, we specifically look into the question of where local communities are in pro-poor PPP projects in order to suggest a new research and policy agenda.

Public–private partnerships (PPPs) have been demonstrated to be an effective (although not universally successful) tool for the delivery of infrastructure and infrastructure-based services. For PPPs to achieve optimum results, the service outputs should be inclusive, i.e., they should be available to as wide a spectrum of society as possible, regardless of income level, gender or ethnic background. In developing countries, many PPPs are reliant upon user fees to create the revenue streams that enable private parties to provide such basic services as power, water, wastewater and transport. When these user fees act as barriers to service access (i.e., they are unaffordable to potential recipients of the service), what are the policy and contractual options which may make the services more universally accessible? This chapter examines three PPP projects from different sectors which have utilized creative mechanisms to enhance affordability and expand the user base: the Pamir Power project in eastern Tajikistan; the urban water PPP in Dakar, Senegal and the East Coast Toll Road in Tamil Nadu, India. Based upon these examples, the chapter will draw conclusions on how this experience can be more broadly applied and made a part of the PPP planning process in developing countries to achieve more affordable and sustainable growth.

The public‐private partnership (PPP) procurement approach enables the development and management of public infrastructure and services through leveraging private capital, management expertise, and creative commercial skills. This approach, pursued by the Ghanaian Government in the development and management of water supply services, contains a plethora of risks resulting from the complexity and dynamic interactions between municipal and central governments (pursuing monetary and political goals), public movements, private water operators, and international donors pursuing their own objectives. The paper seeks to increase awareness of the risks that can erode or reduce potential benefits of PPPs in the water supply sector.

A research approach integrating a literature survey and case study is adopted. A rigorous literature review of PPP risks is first undertaken. Based on six case studies carried out in the Ghanaian water supply sector, this paper identifies and categorises the risks specific to water supply PPP contracts in Ghana.

A total of 40 risk factors are identified, classified into eight categories based on their sources and their content presented in detail. Common risks which are worth practitioners' attention include weak regulatory and monitoring regime; financing; absence of risk allocation mechanisms; inexperience in PPPs; public opposition; delayed and non‐payment of bills, etc.

A comprehensive list of risks associated with water supply projects in Ghana has been identified. This list will aid practitioners, municipal and central government authorities, and the domestic and the (potential) international private sector audience in managing risks involved in such projects.

The extensive public financing for infrastructure guided by the state-led development policy has crowded out private sector participation for infrastructure development in Ethiopia. Although public-private partnership (PPP) has been used by many countries, the Government of Ethiopia has started to adopt it for major infrastructure development recently. Thus, it is important to investigate the reasons that motivated the government to adopt the PPP model to provide insights to the sector players. This paper aims to explore the driving factors for adopting PPP for infrastructure development focusing on the energy sector of Ethiopia and compared it with other countries.

The study used a comprehensive literature review of previous research outcomes and a purposively sampled questionnaire survey of professionals in Ethiopia.

The results of the study revealed that the five top driving factors perceived by the experts for adopting PPP in the energy sector of Ethiopia include the private sector has the ability to raise funds for project, facilitate creative and innovative approaches, save time in delivering the project, accelerate project development and private sector possess better mobility. The comparison of the driving factors with other countries also suggests that each county has its own reason and preference for adopting the PPP model.

The research result contributes to the development of PPP in Ethiopia and other developing countries at the early stage of PPP implementation. It also provides information to policymakers, sponsors, financiers and developers of PPP projects to understand the government's motivations to implement PPP in Ethiopia.

The past few years have seen some private sector involvement in urban and small-town water provision in Ghana, as the government strives to improve access to water supply services for its citizens in line with millennium development goals. Since 1995, both central and local governments have entered into various forms of public-private partnerships (PPPs) contracts. The paper aims to examine challenges and investment needs of Ghanaian water supply sector that necessitated private sector involvement; trends, and factors that constrain the development and implementation of projects with private sector involvement in the sector.

A research approach integrating multi-stage critical review of relevant related literature and case studies is adopted in this paper. The study is further informed by the authors' experience in the sector and knowledge of PPPs. Analysis of data from different sources, using both approaches, provides both historical and contemporary approach to water management practice in Ghana.

The paper reveals that the Ghanaian water supply sector mirrors the classic challenges of public sector utilities in developing countries. Under-investment by government is the major cause of the ill-performance of the sector, necessitating private sector involvement. Management contract has emerged as a popular form of water supply PPP in Ghana. Further, optimal risk allocation has not been widely adopted in these contracts, and not yet been given much attention by practitioners and researchers in the literature of water management in Ghana.

The paper provides useful insights into the constraints of the water supply sector, development and implementation challenges of PPPs in the sector, and prompts a need for more research on risk allocation in water supply PPP contracts.

This paper focuses on three key metrics of poverty, income distribution and employment to ascertain the pro-poor and inclusive-growth position of the western African region. The roles of governance structures and their interactive effects are also accommodated to capture the peculiarity of the region.

The paper employs fixed and dynamic models.

Evidence suggests that growth is pro-poor, although virtually all governance indicators are sterile in stimulating poverty reduction. The authors observe that health and education spending coupled with trade-openness stimulate pro-poor growth potentials, whereas conflicts culminate the pervasiveness of poverty in the region. By empirically answering the question of how inclusive is economic growth through the lens of income-distribution and employment, the authors show that growth has been exclusive as per-capita-GDP growth rather dampens income shared by the poorest 20%. Also, it is observed that growth has not been inclusive as the jobless-growth argument remains valid while high inequality further exacerbates unemployment in the region. It is further shown that governance has been generally weak in propelling inclusive growth except where the institutional-component of governance stimulates inclusive growth through improvement in equality and labor employability.

The study jointly examines the metrics of poverty, income distribution and employment to ascertain growth pro-poorness and inclusivity which are key for the achievement of African-union (AU) agenda 2063. The study captures cross-sectional dependence among selected countries which previous studies ignored.

After working through the case and assignment questions, students will be able to do the following: • Analyse the aspects of strategic leadership and evaluate effectiveness of the leadership in the case study. • Identify stakeholders in a large-scale project and differentiate between their needs and sources of power. • Establish what behavioural mechanisms can be used by leaders to gain support from stakeholders with seemingly divergent pro-poor and pro-growth development orientations for expansion in an emerging market context. • Generate recommendations to communicate the benefits of expansion plans.

On November 8, 2019, Jack van der Merwe, the chief executive officer of the public rapid rail organisation, Gautrain Management Agency (GMA), was considering how to influence stakeholders to support the pace of the expansion planning phase, without alienating the surrounding communities and balancing the various and sometimes opposing stakeholder interests. The case highlights the background to this dilemma in offering the financial background of the Gauteng province and the evolution of the Gautrain project in the context of an emerging market country characterised by institutions at different development levels and how the unique characteristics of the protagonist could influence stakeholder orientations. The case illustrates how the Gautrain is at the centre of a complex transport conflagration in the South African transport ecosystem. Specific stakeholders and their needs are exposed in the case to enable students to analyse their several levels of influence on the project and proposed expansion. The differences between pro-poor and pro-growth development orientations are also highlighted in this case as input to describe the dilemma Van der Merwe faced in his influencing role in this particular South African context. Students will gain insight into how to manage the tensions between pro-poor and pro-growth orientations.

The case is suitable for a graduate-level course on strategy; organisational behaviour; or leadership. The case is also suitable for a post-graduate-level course on an MBA or MPhil program on strategy and leadership.

Teaching notes are available for educators only.

CSS 7: Management Science.

The importance of housing in enhancing the quality of life has been widely reported. It represents one of the basic human needs, provides protection from harm and ensures survival. Like many developing countries, different Ghanaian governments have variously pursued several programs and interventionsdirected at addressing the country's housing challenges including housing loan schemes in the colonial era to affordable housing projects in the 2000s. Notwithstanding, access to adequate housing for the low to middle-income groups still remains unresolved. This paper is an attempt to gain deeper insights into Ghana's housing situation, its challenges and the efforts made by governments during the periods before independence and after independence. The nature of the housing policies implemented during such eras is explored and the reasons for the implementation failures examined. In the end, the paper provides policy recommendations that could potentially help increase the supply of affordable urban housing in the country. The paper calls for a strong political will and pragmatic intelligence in the implementation of housing policies and programs in the country. Mechanisms to provide sufficienthousing finance for the poor to adequately participate in the housing market have also been outlined. It is concluded that the over-empowerment of the private real estate sector to be the major providers of housing may not be optimal. Rather, it would only lead to the inability of the poor to be able to actively participate in the housing market, consequently exacerbating housing poverty. Effective public-private partnership has the potential to guarantee the supply of reasonably-priced and affordable housing provision.