New Wars, New Militaries, New Soldiers: Conflicts, the Armed Forces and the Soldierly Subject: Volume 19

Military is the most important player in war, whether it is international war or intra-national. Although war continues to take place in human history, the nature of the war and its organization has drastically changed over time. The role of technology and nuclear weapons, etc. have changed the ways wars are fought. Also boundaries of states involved in the war have changed since the distinction between state and nation has been blurred. Terrorism has also affected the nature of war. Covert operations also substituted direct military confrontation. Coalition formation against a common enemy is common and international organization's support sometimes necessitates international peacekeepers. The role of subregional organizations as opposed to international organizations like the U.N. has become prominent. The demand and supply of soldiers, their socialization process, hired soldiers, draftees and volunteers, and the role of gender within the army all are playing significant parts. Due to the economic situation in most countries, the resource for hiring more soldiers has been drastically reduced. Retrenchments of professional soldiers are distinct possibilities in many countries; aging of the population is putting the quality and quantity in recruitment in question. This book contains several articles addressing the issues written by some well known scholars and practitioners.

In recent decades, the world has been changing quite substantially. Long gone are the times when the Cold War, the bipolar East–West conflict with the United States of America and the Soviet Union as the main antagonists, produced a somewhat shaky stability in international relations due to the widespread fear of a nuclear holocaust. Looking back on this period from the angle of the 21st century and bearing in mind all that happened since the early 1990s, the Cold War world resembles a comparatively very stable and peaceful era. The period since then, however, is marked by considerable conflict in the global arena, even violent ones, which have become more numerous. Mankind has always lived dangerously, according to Raymond Aron, and this bonmot very much applies to our present era.

Purpose – The purpose of this study is to understand the meaning of asymmetric warfare and its effect on the military profession and the identity of the soldierly subject.

Methodology/approach – Review of the relevant literature.

Findings – The findings highlight that in asymmetric warfare expectations for success should be modest. Here, the concept of ‘sufficient victory’ is applied. The characteristics of asymmetric warfare should be taken into account when talking about the professional ethos of the soldier.

Research limitations/implications – The implications for researchers and practitioners center on the question of how to adequately submit the message to the individual soldier, i.e., the implications is to be seen with regard to education in the military.

Originality/value of paper – The application of the concept of ‘sufficient victory’ is original.

Purpose – This paper discusses the emergence of terrorism in South Asia during last three decades and it resulted in the culmination of Mumbai attacks of 26/11.

Design/methodology/approach – This paper mostly depending on secondary resources is archival in nature.

Findings – This paper links the development of extremism in Pakistan with the events of the Mumbai attacks 26/11.

Originality/value – This paper finds that terrorist activity committed in Mumbai on 26/11 is a result of well-connected Islamist, extremist, who got training and proper support from their network based in Pakistan.

Purpose – The chapter deals with the lessons of conflict-resolutions and considers certain basic and widely debatable issues such as: international law's changes, a clash of national interests and the impact of the global media on the world public opinion in the case of armed interventions, and so on, with a focus on Russia's perception of main international conflicts.

Methodology/approach – The discussion about the Russian perception of prolonged, frozen, and new conflicts is illustrated by several case-studies: the conflict around the Serbian province of Kosovo, the Georgia-Russia war of 2008, and the 2010 upheaval in Kyrgyzstan. The analysis is qualitative.

Findings – The results highlight the Russian perception of the conflicts under consideration and point to the necessity for the work that needs to be done in the field of international law to get hold of the issue of possibly intervening in prolonged, frozen, and new conflicts.

Research limitations/implications – Implications for researchers include the need for a broader inspection of how the global media shape opinions. Next, practitioners may find the analysis of the Russian case relevant for their work.

Originality/value of paper – A case study with broader implications.

Purpose – An analysis of the security implications of asymmetric warfare and counterinsurgency.

Methodology/approach – This chapter provides a review of the relevant literature based on historical, defense-strategic and also a wider security-political qualitative approach.

Findings – The results show that the military is not always the best and the only instrument to counter asymmetric war. Intelligence and covert action play a certain role, but cause additional problems, also with regard to international law.

Research limitations/implications – Further research should be done with regard to a coordination and cooperation of the various actors and bodies engaged in countering insurgency and asymmetric warfare.

Originality/value of paper – This is a research paper with practical implications.

Purpose – This article describes a theoretical model that allows understanding, explaining, and measuring the perceived organizational effectiveness of multinational coalition operations’ headquarters.

Design/methodology/approach – The proposed model is based on subject matter experts’ opinions and on existing general and military models of organizational effectiveness. It is tailored to the particular case of coalition operations’ headquarters.

Findings – The model includes input factors such as structure and processes, people and organizational culture as well as the operative and official goals of the organization. It especially emphasizes the degree of fit, or alignment, among them.

Originality/value – This comprehensive model provides a solid basis for (a) capturing the perceived effectiveness of people deployed in such headquarters, (b) for determining influencing factors in order to identify barriers and, if required, (c) for deducing improvement opportunities for organizational effectiveness of these coalition operations’ headquarters.

Purpose – The aim of the chapter is to analyze the multinational collaboration between troops-contributing countries, and between military and civilian personnel at UNIFIL's headquarters in South-Lebanon.

Methodology/approach – The methodological approach consisted of semi-structured interviews and participatory observation.

Findings – The multinational collaboration at the HQ was satisfactory, although not optimal as mutual stereotyping continued to exist. Western military personnel still prefers to operate in a NATO framework and resent some of the civil servants’ privileges. This hampers a smooth civil–military cooperation to some extent.

Originality/value of the paper – Few qualitative studies have looked at how participating nations collaborate at missions’ headquarters. This study provides a look inside the daily work of military and civilian personnel at the operational level and, consequently, offers insights for improving multinational collaboration in future (peace) operations.

Purpose – The purpose of this study is to understand the effectiveness of national crisis response networks (NCRN) in a broad sense, including the domains of governance, and strategic and tactical management. The chapter thus moves beyond views considering crisis response a reactive, tactical level effort. Specifically, it focuses on the role of military organizations in NCRNs.

Methodology/approach – After building a research framework based on organization and military studies, this case study examines the organizational response to the disaster that was caused by the tropical cyclone “Katrina”; the data used are qualitative.

Findings – The results highlight the ex-ante lack of preparedness of organizations to cooperate in a NCRN. Once Katrina hit in 2005, confusion and tensions permeated interorganizational relationships for a number of days.

Research limitations/implications – Implications for researchers and practitioners center on the NCRN's backbone organizations and communities potentially affected. Through tension management and network-level investments in knowledge and routines they can contribute to effective crisis response. The framework could be applied to other national crises. Case studies can be generalized in a conceptual sense.

Originality/value of paper – Katrina has been studied quite extensively yet from a crisis response perspective. This chapter offers a reflection that broadens the scope of our understanding of NCRNs, with an emphasis on the military.

Purpose – This chapter aims to describe and analyze practices and activities linked with the traditions – and their transmission between the cadets – in Saint-Cyr, the French military academy.

Methodology/approach – The methodological approach was anthropological, consisting of immersion, observation, and interviews during the first three years of training of the future French army officers.

Findings – Traditions in Saint-Cyr are an opportunity for cadets to be elected by their comrades in order to lead the class. This contribution focuses on these elected cadets’ characteristics and shows that having such a responsibility comes along with advantages and privileges, and, at the end, with a better grading.

Originality/value of the paper – It is the first time that a researcher was allowed to follow all activities and study a class in Saint-Cyr during the three-year training period. This study provides a look inside the daily cadets’ life and shows that the traditions are not just an anecdotal aspect of cadets’ life, but perfectly witnesses all challenges, power positions, and stakes associated with them.

Purpose – The present study addresses: First, which traditions are currently lived in the Swiss Armed Forces? Second, which traditions are viewed in positive or negative terms and why is this so? And finally, which traditions have disappeared and which are wished for?

Methodology/approach – Two separate surveys were conducted by the authors of this study in an attempt to answer these questions. For the first survey, qualitative interviews were conducted with 50 professional and militia military commanders in order to get the internal perspective. For the second survey, a representative sample of 1,200 Swiss voters was interviewed in an attempt to get the external perspective.

Findings – The main findings show that there are few formal traditions in the Swiss Armed Forces. The republican self-concept and the decentralized political system in Switzerland have significantly influenced the meaning of traditions and their practice. Moreover, traditions mainly serve to integrate cadres and soldiers into the military. The majority of traditions is informal or a combination of formal (top-down) and informal (bottom-up) traditions. Lost traditions not only fell victim to structural changes, but their purpose was also questioned by commanders. Two major military reforms as well as societal change are the main reasons for the disappearance of traditions in the Swiss Armed Forces. The results show a high degree of congruence with the qualitative survey. In short, the Swiss population generally views military traditions in favorable terms. In particular, it endorses traditions that serve to foster a sense of community and impart knowledge. However, traditions that stress manhood and bravery are strongly rejected.

Research limitations/implications – The approach could be applied to other cases. Case studies may be generalized in a conceptual sense.

Originality/value of paper – Case study with broader practical and research implications, invites international comparative research.

Purpose – This chapter aims to coin, unpack, and illustrate the concept and societal impact of informerphobia. This is the fear of people to report information on (threatening) violence and terrorism to the state agencies that are formally tasked to respond to these threats.

Methodology/approach – This chapter is a theoretical exercise, combining insights from general sociology, organization studies, military studies and the literature on good governance. The illustration pertaining to Afghanistan is based on previous fieldwork in the region.

Findings – The chapter points at the importance of having properly functioning state agencies that have to be flexible, decentralized, and truly bureaucratic in the Weberian sense of the word. In addition, a civic culture of ordinary people producing counterpressure is indispensable to make the state agencies more effective.

Originality/value of the paper – The concept is brand new as is its elaboration and application to Afghanistan.

Recruitment and retention strategy is driven by a complement of endogenous constraints and exogenous imperatives. Confronted with population aging and unprecedented and enduring fiscal austerity, staffing priorities among many armed forces of the world's advanced industrialized democracies seem to be driven increasingly by the bottom line instead of a view toward the future security environment. This study takes a demographic approach to the integration of military, political, and economic means in pursuit of states’ ultimate objectives in the international system. Similar to the youthful populations, rapid development, and urbanization that characterized the first half of the 19th century, demographic developments of the 21st century are raising the specter of systemic disorder, civil war, and political instability (Evans, 2009; Goldstone, 1993; Nichiporuk, 2000; Tam & Hoffman, 1994). Indeed, a recent intelligence forecast cautioned that “lagging economies, ethnic affiliations, intense religious convictions, and youth bulges will align to create a ‘perfect storm’ for internal conflict” in the near future (National Intelligence Council, 2004, p. 97). Factoring these developments into recruitment and retention strategy has significant implications for strategic posture.

Purpose – The aim of this chapter is to analyze how certain preconceived notions about difficulties in the armed forces’ recruitment and retention can be seen as a result of a singular national historical process that shape military data gathering.

Methodology/approach – We used a combination of quantitative and qualitative methods, including the inspection of documents, the creation and analysis of databases, observations and working with information specialists within the military.

Findings – Analyzing how the process of collecting information is designed, we found out that the introduction of the preconceptions mentioned above limits a deep understanding of the different variables that determine the recruitment and retention problems in the Argentinean armed forces and affect policies regarding them.

Purpose – The aim of this chapter is to explain peculiarities of socialization of conscripts through the theoretical framework of symbolic interactionism.

Methodology/approach – The process of socialization of conscripts is considered as a combination of elements of primary and secondary socialization. These elements are defined on the basis of theoretical ideas of Cooley, Mead, Berger, and Luckmann. The potential of this approach is examined by taking the Russian armed forces as a case study.

Findings – Socialization of conscripts is mostly secondary (professional) socialization. But in some countries (with conscription), it includes many elements of primary socialization. In these cases, the army can become a total institution for the conscript inmates.

Purpose – The purpose of the study was to get a deeper understanding of officers’ views of the factors that contribute to army ranger conscripts’ willingness to apply for international military service as well as to look at the officers’ own role in the recruitment process.

Methodology/approach – A grounded theory approach was used. Nine officers from the Swedish Army Ranger Battalion were interviewed.

Findings – Factors that seem to promote the possibility to recruit conscripts to international military service could be understood from five main categories: international military service, education, officers, the Swedish Army Ranger Battalion, and recruitment.

Originality/value of paper – Interviewing key figures in the recruitment process of the Swedish Armed Forces.

Times are a-changing, and the military are changing with them. In this collection of sociological studies on the armed forces and conflict resolution we have seen that the military face at least three types of developments.