Indonesian mosaic: the essential need for multicultural education

Abstract

Purpose

This desk research critically reviews the existing literature to be dialogued with interviews with several experts on multicultural education in Indonesia to provide input for policymaking and practical strategies. Through a systematic review of academic literature, policy documents and reports, this study aims to provide insights into the challenges and opportunities associated with multicultural education and propose action-based and actionable solutions to promote tolerance, understanding and unity among diverse cultural groups.

Design/methodology/approach

Using a systematic review methodology, this study analyzed existing literature and involved semi-structured interviews with several experts on multicultural education in Indonesia. By searching academic databases and online repositories, relevant literature was synthesized to generate insights into the current state of multicultural education, key challenges and potential solutions. Thematic analysis identified recurring themes and patterns across the literature, allowing for a nuanced understanding of the complexities surrounding multicultural education in Indonesia.

Findings

This research highlights the importance of promoting tolerance and unity among diverse cultural groups in Indonesian education, highlighting curriculum reform, teacher training and community engagement, despite institutional barriers and sociocultural prejudices.

Practical implications

The findings of this study suggest that to maximize the impact of multicultural education in Indonesia, there is a need for comprehensive teacher training programs, equitable resource allocation and localized curricula that reflect Indonesia’s cultural diversity. Policymakers should focus on developing strategies that address the unique challenges of implementing multicultural education in diverse regions, ensuring that all students have access to culturally relevant and inclusive education.

Social implications

The successful implementation of multicultural education has the potential to promote social harmony and inclusivity in Indonesia by fostering a deeper understanding and appreciation of cultural diversity. Addressing the identified challenges and gaps could lead to more cohesive and tolerant communities, reducing social tensions and conflicts rooted in cultural misunderstandings. This research calls for sustained efforts to ensure that multicultural education becomes a cornerstone of Indonesia’s educational system, contributing to the country’s broader goals of unity in diversity.

Originality/value

This research contributes to existing literature on multicultural education by synthesizing insights from diverse academic sources. By systematically reviewing literature, this study offers a comprehensive understanding of challenges and opportunities in Indonesia and provides evidence-based recommendations for policymakers, educators and stakeholders. Emphasizing the importance of promoting tolerance and unity, this study offers practical strategies for realizing these goals in Indonesian society.

Citation

Mariyono, D. (2024), "Indonesian mosaic: the essential need for multicultural education", Quality Education for All, Vol. 1 No. 1, pp. 301-325. https://doi.org/10.1108/QEA-05-2024-0042

Introduction

Indonesia, with its sprawling archipelago of over 13,000 islands and a population of more than 300 ethnic groups speaking 200 languages, is a vibrant tapestry of cultural, religious and social diversity. As a nation that accommodates six major religions – Islam, Hinduism, Christianity, Catholicism, Buddhism and Confucianism – alongside a rich spectrum of indigenous beliefs, Indonesia’s pluralism represents both a source of strength and a potential fault line for conflict (Noer et al., 2019; Utomo and Wasino, 2020). This diversity enhances the nation’s cultural wealth while simultaneously posing challenges to unity, harmony and national stability (Dellarosa, 2021).

Managing this diversity is critical for safeguarding Indonesia’s national integrity and fostering sustainable growth. The nation’s foundational principles of Pancasila and Bhineka Tunggal Ika – Unity in Diversity – reflect the philosophical backbone of Indonesia’s multicultural identity and are integral to maintaining national cohesion (Mashuri et al., 2024), including Indonesian policies based on these principles (Manurung, 2017).

Multicultural education has emerged as an important tool for fostering peace, tolerance and social harmony, embracing diversity to foster respect and understanding among Indonesia’s younger generation (Hartinah et al., 2023). Schools across Indonesia, such as State Junior High School 3 Sorong City, are increasingly adopting multicultural education programs to instill these values in students from diverse backgrounds, demonstrating the potential of education as a unifying force, as an effective means of addressing fragility, with political, religious and economic tensions potentially escalating into destructive confrontations, as demonstrated during the 2020 presidential election (Prabowo et al., 2017b).

Conflicts such as church burnings and interfaith boycotts underscore the lack of intercultural understanding that persists in the country. While initiatives like interfaith dialogues and cultural festivals – such as the National Festival of Arts and Traditions– have shown success in promoting unity (Hutabarat, 2023; Tume, 2022), the socio-cultural approach is the primary strategy for resolving post-ethnic and religious conflicts in multicultural societies (Hartoyo et al., 2020).

Despite decades of scholarly debate and the proliferation of seminars, workshops and academic platforms advocating for multicultural education, the challenges of pluralism in Indonesia remain unresolved (Hadi and Wekke, 2017). Sensitivity to Indonesia’s pluralistic realities – encompassing ethnicity, religion, culture, economic status and politics – is increasingly recognized as essential to building a cohesive nation (Anwar, 2021; Cathrin and Wikandaru, 2023; Kholil, 2022; Mifsud, 2024).

At its core, multiculturalism is not merely a pragmatic political strategy but a way of life – an ethos of mutual acceptance and respect that transcends cultural, ethnic, gender, linguistic and religious differences (Maulidiah et al., 2023). The Indonesian national character, shaped by the political will of the government and rooted in the vision of the nation’s founding fathers, is a product of this multicultural ethos. The principles laid out in the 1928 Youth Pledge and the 1945 Proclamation of Independence emphasize Indonesia’s unity as one nation, one homeland and one language. These ideals are more than historical artifacts; they are living commitments to the country’s pluralistic identity, bound together by the motto “Bhinneka Tunggal Ika” (Bahri and Syah, 2022; Baihaqi, 2021).

To sustain this national identity, effective management of cultural diversity is essential. Research highlights that when managed well, cultural and religious differences can foster creativity, innovation and adaptability – key elements for democratic consolidation and national progress (Baleviciene, 2021; Banks and Banks, 2019). However, poor management of diversity can lead to conflict, mistrust and division (Baporikar, 2020). It is not enough to acknowledge diversity; it must be actively embraced and integrated into the educational system. As research has shown, cultural awareness and competence within schools not only enhance academic achievement but also promote social development and intercultural understanding (Cao, 2024; Wang, 2023). By cultivating these skills, Indonesia can foster a new generation that is equipped to maintain and strengthen the nation’s pluralistic identity in an increasingly interconnected world. By doing so, Indonesia can transform its diversity from a source of potential conflict into a foundation for enduring strength.

Research questions

RQ1.

How has library research contributed to understanding the importance, challenges and key insights of multicultural education in Indonesia, particularly in diverse cultural contexts?

RQ2.

In what ways can findings from existing literature inform policy decisions and practical strategies to address challenges, promote tolerance, understanding and unity through multicultural education in Indonesia?

RQ3.

What are the current trends in the implementation of multicultural education, and where are the research and policy gaps that need to be addressed to ensure its progress in Indonesia?

Literature review

Integration of multicultural education in the learning process

Multicultural education should be integrated into classroom learning, incorporating values like democracy, humanism, gender justice, acceptance of opinions and cultural pluralism (Banks, 2010). The multicultural educational psychology approach emphasizes the importance of developing deeper self-understanding, positive self-concept and pride in personal identity (Nieto, 2017), by promoting understanding of cultural differences and enhancing students’ multicultural competence. However, effectiveness depends on quality implementation and social context, necessitating improved educational strategies (Oladotun Opeoluwa Olagbaju, 2020; SB, 2019; Sherpa, 2019).

Mistakes in transforming cultural values often lead to excessive primordialism regarding ethnicity, religion and social class. Primordialism, as a theoretical framework, argues that ethnic attachments are fixed and deep, often reinforcing essential perceptions of ethnicity (Webb, 2013). While primordialism serves to preserve group identity, it can also result in rigid social categorization based on essential characteristics such as descent and surname, which can ultimately exacerbate primordialism (Kononova et al., 2024). Therefore, early multicultural education is considered capable of fostering empathy and tolerance among students regardless of their social status, religion or academic abilities (Hartinah et al., 2023; Naz et al., 2023).

Challenges and potential of multicultural education

Challenges like teacher unpreparedness and inadequate resources can hinder its effective integration (Naz et al., 2023). On the other hand, openness and tolerance are often associated with multicultural personality, although not all of these personality aspects are strong predictors of tolerance in intercultural contexts (Korol et al., 2016). Multicultural education fosters empathy and tolerance for social status, religion and academic ability, but successful implementation requires teacher preparation and adequate resources (Hartinah et al., 2023). Therefore, although the benefits of multicultural education are clear, attention must be paid to addressing practical challenges to maximize its impact on students’ empathy and tolerance.

Transforming education through multicultural perspectives

Multicultural education is not just a reform but also an ongoing process that aims to improve overall achievement, not just test scores. Therefore, this education must cover all aspects of education and not stop at the initial goal (Houser and Thoma, 2017). According to Banks (Martin and Banks, 1997), multicultural education is an educational reform movement aiming to create equal opportunities for students from diverse backgrounds, recognizing differences such as ethnicity, religion, gender, economic conditions, geography, disabilities and age groups.

Implications for health and education

In the context of health disparities, ethnic minority status is not always a direct risk factor, but rather serves as a proxy for underlying risk factors (Okuda et al., 2016). This is also true in integrated care models that take into account cultural and linguistic competency for minority populations (Sanchez et al., 2016). Thus, multicultural education not only provides opportunities for students to appreciate cultural diversity but also prepares them to live harmoniously in diverse societies by promoting cultural awareness, empathy and appreciation for diversity.

Multicultural education must be comprehensive, embracing the diversity of students’ religions, genders and practices to create an inclusive environment that promotes equality and social justice and prepares students for a diverse world (Elemam and Saide, 2023). It should also consider factors like economic conditions, disabilities and age groups to effectively serve diverse populations (Elemam and Saide, 2023). While the goal is to integrate cultural differences, challenges such as potential declines in the quality of education for minority groups or the loss of cultural identity may arise (Elemam and Saide, 2023).

Research from Lahore, Punjab educational institutions supports the idea that multicultural education enhances cultural awareness, empathy and respect – essential elements for fostering diversity and equity in classrooms (Naz et al., 2023). Despite these challenges, there is a consensus that multicultural education is valuable for developing positive intergroup relations and fostering inclusive social identities (Aral et al., 2022). It consists of three key elements: culture, diversity and actions responding to diversity. The concept of “ism” reflects a normative doctrine that should be embraced by societies with diverse cultures (R’boul, 2021).

By promoting cultural awareness, empathy and respect, multicultural education ensures equal educational opportunities across diverse backgrounds, fostering understanding and appreciation of different value systems, lifestyles and languages (Naz et al., 2023; Sherpa, 2019). It also prepares individuals to live harmoniously in a diverse society by highlighting the strengths and values of cultural diversity, ensuring human rights and mutual respect (Sherpa, 2019). However, students may find intercultural education overwhelming because of information overload, and discussions on sensitive topics can be uncomfortable (Naz et al., 2023). Nonetheless, multicultural education has been shown to improve friendships in diverse classrooms and enhance student relationships and inclusion (Naz et al., 2023), emphasizing equal learning opportunities regardless of age, religion, gender, social class, ethnicity or race (Sismanto et al., 2022). While differences are a reality, they should be naturally accepted rather than used as grounds for discrimination. Tolerance must be cultivated so that individuals can live together peacefully despite these differences.

The Education Reform Movement addresses institutional policies that exclude certain groups from receiving equivalent education, advocating for multicultural education through planned fields, programs and practices that meet the diverse needs and aspirations of students (Martin and Banks, 1997). This ongoing process aims to enhance overall achievement, not just improve test scores, and involves continuous efforts to eliminate racial, gender and disability-based discrimination (Houser and Thoma, 2017). The pursuit of educational equality for all students must persist, paralleling the struggle for freedom and justice.

Methods

Research methodology

This study uses a robust and multidimensional approach to comprehensively investigate multicultural education in Indonesia. A systematic review methodology using semi-structured interview dialogues was chosen to provide a comprehensive overview of existing literature, policy frameworks and reports relevant to the field. By combining a variety of sources, this study identifies emerging patterns, challenges and opportunities, ensuring that the analysis is comprehensive and insightful.

Research design

This study uses a systematic review design to critically evaluate existing research in reputable national and international databases on multicultural education in Indonesia. This study examines academic literature, policy documents and expert interviews, uncovering trends and exploring future trajectories for educators, policymakers and institutions. The design is guided by a commitment to capturing diversity, inclusivity and cultural representation in educational practices and policies, which are essential to fostering equitable learning environments in Indonesia. This approach allows for an in-depth exploration of the relationship between education and multiculturalism, not only analyzing successes but also identifying areas for intervention or innovation.

Data collection

Data were collected through two primary methods:

1. a comprehensive and targeted search of academic databases, institutional repositories and online libraries; and

2. interviews with key university leaders across Indonesia.

1. Literature review: The search strategy involved the use of keywords such as “multicultural education,” “diversity in education,” “Indonesia,” “policy implementation” and “cultural inclusion,” ensuring a broad spectrum of material was captured. Peer-reviewed articles, government reports and policy documents from various disciplines – such as education, sociology, cultural studies and public policy – were analyzed to provide a multidisciplinary perspective on multicultural education. Government reports and policy documents were particularly important for understanding the institutional and governmental responses to multicultural education.

2. Interviews: Semi-structured interviews were conducted with nine university leaders from East Java, Central Java and West Java. Each province was sampled with representation from one state university, one private university and one religious university. This interview aims to gather diverse perspectives on the implementation and impacts and challenges of multicultural education in various regions in Indonesia. The interviews provide direct insights from decision-makers and leaders in the field of education, allowing the research to highlight local challenges and opportunities.

Data analysis

Thematic analysis methodology was used to systematically analyze selected literature to be dialogued with interview results. This analytical process involved identifying and coding recurring themes, patterns and key findings across the various sources of data. Through this approach, the research aimed to uncover both explicit and implicit narratives that have emerged around multicultural education in Indonesia.

This systematic review of multicultural education in Indonesia provides actionable recommendations for educators, policymakers and stakeholders. The review, which is informed by interviews with experts, highlights the importance of a culturally responsive education system that meets the diverse needs of students from diverse backgrounds. This study provides a comprehensive understanding of the successes and shortcomings of multicultural education and guides policymakers, educators and academics to ensure a more inclusive education system.

Research limitations/implications

This research has certain limitations. The scope of the literature review may limit the generalizability of findings to specific contexts or populations within Indonesia, and variations in literature availability may introduce bias. Additionally, the small sample size of university leaders interviewed, while providing valuable insights, may not fully capture the diversity of experiences across Indonesia. Despite these limitations, this study offers significant contributions to the promotion of cultural diversity and inclusivity in Indonesian education and serves as a valuable resource for policymakers, educators and stakeholders.

Result and discussion

Result finding

Q1: Answer:

Rector A1, B1: Multicultural education is important to promote intercultural understanding, tolerance and help students appreciate differences. It reduces conflict and supports social harmony through teaching inclusive values in a diverse society.

Rector A2, B2: Multicultural education plays a role in building intercultural understanding and respect. Early exposure helps the generation to be more inclusive and tolerant, maintaining peace and social harmony.

Rector A3, B3: Values from various cultures can reduce prejudice and conflict and create a more inclusive and harmonious society.

Rector A6, B6: Multicultural education is important because it reflects the diversity of Indonesian culture. It promotes understanding, appreciation and tolerance and prevents conflict, creating an open space for getting to know each other.

Rector B7: Multicultural education promotes unity in diversity, reduces conflict and encourages productive cooperation in diverse societies.

Rector A8: Multicultural education fosters tolerance and inclusiveness, reduces prejudice and stereotypes and contributes to the creation of peaceful societies.

Q2: Answer:

Rector A1, B1: The main challenges include lack of resources, inadequate teacher training and a curriculum that is still centered on a particular perspective. In remote areas such as Papua, access to teaching materials that reflect local diversity is very limited.

Rector A2, B2: The lack of representative teaching materials and minimal teacher training are major challenges, especially in areas such as Central Sulawesi, where educational resources for local cultural diversity are difficult to obtain.

Rector A3, B3: The lack of teacher training and limited teaching materials in areas such as West Kalimantan, coupled with the imbalance in access between urban and rural areas, are major obstacles.

Rector A6, B6: Challenges include limited resources, inadequate teacher training and inconsistent curriculum implementation, especially in areas such as Papua.

Rector A7, B7: Limited resources, inadequate teacher training, a centralized curriculum and unequal access to education in remote areas such as Papua are major challenges.

Rector A8: Challenges include inequality in access to resources, teacher readiness and balancing local culture with the national curriculum in areas such as Aceh and Papua.

Q3: Answer:

Rector A1, B1: The Independent Curriculum Policy provides space for multicultural values, but its implementation is inconsistent across regions. Programs such as the Fun School Movement support inclusive education, but its capacity is still limited.

Rector A2, B2: The National Curriculum Policy based on Character Education provides opportunities, but the distribution of resources and support from regions is still uneven. The School-Based Multicultural Education Program shows potential but requires broader support.

Rector A3, B3: Policies such as Education for All provide a good foundation, but implementation is still constrained by variations between regions. Multicultural School Programs in large cities need more funding to expand to remote areas.

Rector A6, B6: Policies such as the “Independent Curriculum” support inclusivity but lack detailed guidance and financial support for widespread implementation.

Rector A7, B7: Policies such as the 2013 Curriculum emphasize character inclusivity, but implementation faces challenges such as minimal teacher training and lack of resources.

Rector A8: Government policies recognize multicultural education through the 2013 Curriculum and character education, but lack of training and materials hinder effective implementation.

Challenges in implementing multicultural education

Multicultural education, which aims to integrate diverse cultural values into learning environments, is widely regarded as a tool for promoting democratic values, gender equity and acceptance of differing perspectives (Banks, 2010). It fosters multicultural competence by encouraging empathy, tolerance and respect for cultural diversity. However, implementing these ideals presents significant challenges, particularly in resource-limited regions like Aceh and Papua. Interviews with university chancellors reveal obstacles such as insufficient resources, unequal access to education and inadequate teacher training, all of which hinder the effective integration of multicultural education.

University leaders from institutions in remote areas, such as those in Papua and Central Sulawesi, highlight the inadequacy of resources and lack of access to culturally diverse teaching materials. This perpetuates a curriculum that often favors dominant cultural perspectives, limiting the scope of multicultural education. Hartinah et al. (2023) emphasize similar concerns, noting that teacher unpreparedness and resource insufficiencies are widespread barriers. Many educators report feeling ill-equipped to address diverse cultural needs because of insufficient training, a concern echoed by university chancellors who call for more robust teacher development programs.

Structural challenges such as primordialism, which reinforce rigid social categorizations, further complicate the implementation of multicultural education (Webb, 2013). Government policies like the Independent Curriculum and the Adiwiyata School initiative aim to promote multicultural values but are inconsistently applied, particularly in rural areas. Interviews with chancellors from universities like A5 and A6 underscore the need for more comprehensive guidelines and financial support to effectively implement these policies. In Papua, for example, the lack of relevant teaching materials and inconsistent teacher training continue to impede progress.

Despite broad support for multicultural education among educators, many express concerns about their readiness to effectively integrate these principles into the curriculum. The literature corroborates these concerns, identifying teacher unpreparedness as a major barrier (Naz et al., 2023). Although universities such as A5 and A6 offer training programs to address these issues, their reach remains limited, particularly in remote regions. To bridge the gap between theory and practice, there is a pressing need for more extensive teacher development and resource distribution to ensure the successful implementation of multicultural education across diverse regions.

Progress and stagnation: Trends in multicultural education

Despite the challenges, both literature and interviews reveal promising trends in the gradual progress of multicultural education. Chancellors from University A1 and A2 note that increased intercultural understanding and tolerance among students are evident, with more participation in cross-cultural activities and reduced conflict on diverse campuses. This aligns with findings by Naz et al. (2023), who emphasize that multicultural education enhances student relationships and inclusion, fostering a more harmonious learning environment.

However, progress is uneven. While multicultural education promotes cultural awareness and empathy, it often lacks sustainability and depth. Houser and Thoma (2017) argue that it must be an ongoing process, encompassing all aspects of education beyond initial reforms. Chancellors interviewed echoed this sentiment, highlighting the need for curricula that fully reflect Indonesia’s cultural diversity. Stagnation persists, particularly in delivering deeper multicultural content and adequately preparing teachers to engage students meaningfully.

Recent trends in digital education offer hope for overcoming these barriers. Universities such as A5 and A6 have introduced technology-based platforms like the “Digital Multicultural Education Platform” and the “Digital Multicultural Education Portal,” providing widespread access to multicultural content through e-learning and mobile applications. This reflects a broader shift toward using technology to enhance intercultural interaction and bridge geographical divides.

Research supports this trend, demonstrating that effective multicultural education increases student empathy and cross-cultural engagement and reduces stereotyping (Naz et al., 2023; Aral et al., 2022). However, despite progress, stagnation remains. Many curricula still inadequately represent Indonesia’s diverse cultural landscape, with chancellors from A5 and A6 stressing the need for more representative teaching materials. The literature cautions that without comprehensive, contextually relevant content, multicultural education risks oversimplifying diversity (Elemam and Saide, 2023).

Gaps in current research and policy

The challenges in implementing multicultural education become clear when examining the gaps in research, policy and practice. While its value in promoting social harmony is widely acknowledged, scaling these initiatives across Indonesia’s diverse regions remains complex. The literature emphasizes the need for adapting multicultural curricula to local contexts while maintaining national cohesion (Banks, 2010; Nieto, 2017), balancing cultural identity preservation with the integration of inclusive educational principles.

Interviews with chancellors reveal shortcomings in policy implementation, particularly in programs like the “Fun Schools Movement” and “School-Based Multicultural Education,” which are hindered by inconsistent support and uneven resource distribution. This mirrors findings in the literature, where the effectiveness of multicultural education often depends on the availability of diverse and locally relevant teaching materials (Oladotun Opeoluwa Olagbaju, 2020; Sherpa, 2019).

Both sources call for increased focus on teacher training and equitable resource allocation. Specialized training in multicultural methodologies and access to updated materials are essential to extending multicultural education beyond urban centers to rural and remote regions. Current policies like Indonesia’s “Character Education” and “Independent Curriculum” offer a foundation but lack the strategic detail and financial support needed for nationwide implementation, especially in resource-limited areas.

Localized approaches are also crucial. A5 University’s chancellor highlighted the limitations of a one-size-fits-all national curriculum, which often overlooks the unique cultural dynamics of regions like Aceh. Similarly, the literature stresses the need for flexibility in multicultural education to accommodate the specific cultural, economic and geographic realities of diverse student populations (Miyahara et al., 2024).

In summary, while multicultural education is highly valued, challenges such as teacher preparedness, resource shortages and a lack of localized curricula persist. Addressing these issues will require focused research, policy reform and practical support, with technological innovations and ongoing stakeholder dialogue offering potential solutions.

A call for comprehensive and sustained effort

The dialogue between the literature and the interviews paints a picture of both progress and ongoing challenges in the field of multicultural education. While there are promising trends in fostering greater intercultural understanding and empathy, there remain significant obstacles in resource distribution, teacher training and policy implementation. The gaps in current research and policy highlight the need for more localized approaches to multicultural education, ensuring that all students, regardless of their geographic location, have access to an education that reflects and respects their cultural identity. Only through sustained and comprehensive efforts can multicultural education fulfill its potential in promoting social harmony and inclusivity in Indonesia.

Literature discussion

Navigating the kaleidoscope: unraveling multiculturalism’s essence.

Multiculturalism emphasizes valuing and respecting one’s own culture while appreciating and understanding others (Natadjaja, 2019; Prabowo et al., 2017a). It promotes cultural diversity and equality, addressing interactions between immigrant and indigenous groups and advocating for equality across cultural, gender, religious and linguistic differences (Sumarni, 2019).

Post-World War II, multiculturalism surged because of global labor migration. Germany saw an influx from Eastern Europe and Turkey, France from Africa and the UK explored cultural diversity academically. In the USA, multiculturalism emerged in response to segregation, while Australia’s shift followed the end of White Australia policies. In Indonesia, it evolved from nationalism and colonial resistance (Nurcahyono, 2019). Multiculturalism manifests in various forms:

• Multicultural isolation: Groups coexist independently but maintain distinctiveness, such as the Kajang Tribe in Bulukumba (Anshari and Sultan, 2020).

• Accommodative multiculturalism: Dominant cultures accommodate minorities without challenge, like Javanese culture in Palopo.

• Autonomous multiculturalism: Groups seek equality and autonomous existence.

• Critical multiculturalism: Groups aim for shared culture but face impositions from dominant groups, similar to the LGBT community in Indonesia (Hamied, 2021; Maryani et al., 2021).

• Cosmopolitan multiculturalism: It strives to remove cultural barriers, fostering new cultural identities.

Maintaining a cohesive multicultural society requires avoiding:

• Excessive primitivism: viewing one's group as superior;

• Ethnocentrism: dismissing other cultures;

• Discriminatory attitudes: based on class, race, economic status, etc.; and

• Prejudice-based generalizations: leading to conflict in diverse societies like Indonesia (Ayuningtyas et al., 2021).

Religious conflicts often stem from misunderstandings and rigid truth claims, highlighting the need for inter-religious tolerance and dialogue (Abduh et al., 2022; Nurhayati et al., 2022). Indonesia’s unique multicultural approach, shaped by its historical and socio-political context, reflects both celebration and challenge in societal domains (Hoon, 2017; U, 2024). To navigate this diversity, understanding Indonesia’s multicultural identity and supporting intercultural dialogue is essential (Atikurrahman et al., 2022; Hutabarat, 2023; Thahir, 2023; Wibowo et al., 2023).

Unveiling the mosaic: traits of multicultural education.

Multicultural education focuses on appreciating and understanding cultural diversity. Paulo Freire asserts that education should reflect social realities and promote social mobility (Nurman et al., 2022). L.H. Ekstrand and Barry van Driel describe it as encompassing inter-ethnic, transcultural and cross-cultural concepts, ensuring equal opportunities regardless of differences (Fox, 2022; Ginaya et al., 2020; Yanto et al., 2022).

The term “multicultural education” blends education – developing attitudes and behaviors – with multiculturalism – celebrating cultural diversity (Setyowati et al., 2022; Tsai et al., 2022). This ideology enhances human dignity by recognizing and celebrating differences (Alim and Syamsuddin, 2018; Halim et al., 2022). Calarry Sada, citing Sleeter, outlines four models:

1. teaching about cultural diversity as assimilation;

2. promoting social relations;

3. fostering pluralism without social stratification; and

4. enhancing pluralism and equality through reflection on diversity.

M. Ainul Yaqin views multicultural education as a strategy that uses students’ cultural differences to foster democratic and pluralistic behavior (Fahrudin, 2019; Nugraha, 2019). Mundzier Suparta defines it as a philosophy that institutionalizes cultural pluralism and democratic values to combat discrimination (Muhajir et al., 2020; Septianasari and Wahyuni, 2020). Key principles include culturally relevant content and reflective teaching based on students’ experiences (NURSANTİ and ANDRİYANTİ, 2021; Puspitasari et al., 2021). Intercultural education is characterized by:

• Democracy, equality and justice: ensuring equal opportunities for all students, as highlighted in Islamic teachings (Jayadi et al., 2022; Noor et al., 2021);

• Humanity, togetherness and peace: fostering peaceful coexistence, reflecting Islamic concepts of hablum min al-nas, ta'aruf and ta'awun (Uyun and Warsah, 2022); and

• Recognizing and appreciating diversity: encouraging dialogue and tolerance, modeled by the Prophet's interactions with various religious communities (Fios et al., 2017).

In Indonesia, multicultural education aims to promote social cohesion through inclusive curricula, teacher training and a culture of respect (Hartinah et al., 2023). However, challenges persist, including the need for a more comprehensive multicultural curriculum and reforms in religious education to enhance interfaith understanding (Noor and Siregar, 2015; Puspita Hafidz, 2022). Addressing these issues is crucial for effectively uniting Indonesia’s diverse population (Syahdila, 2021).

Multicultural education in Indonesia.

Law Number 20 of 2003 emphasizes education as a tool for personal and societal growth, ensuring equal opportunities for all children regardless of social class or race (Mappaenre et al., 2023). Ambarudin views multicultural education as a means to embrace diversity naturally, fostering unbiased interactions among students (Rachmadtullah et al., 2020; Sariyatun et al., 2018).

In Indonesia, the academic literature on multicultural education is rich, covering bibliometric analyses, curriculum development and teacher training. Budirahayu and Saud (2021) highlight the need for multicultural discourse in education to promote harmony and integration in East Java. Abdullah et al. (2023) and Nakaya (2018) discuss how multicultural education strengthens community solidarity and addresses ethnic conflicts, particularly in West Kalimantan.

Trends in multicultural education in Indonesia show a rise in research productivity since 2002, with significant contributions from various authors (Utari, 2023). Qualitative studies emphasize integrating cultural perspectives into curricula and enhancing teacher training (Nabilah, 2024). Al Farisi et al. (2024) explore using Indonesian folklore to improve Arabic language learning and cultural appreciation.

Challenges persist, including racism and resistance to multicultural education, highlighting the need for deeper understanding and appreciation of cultural diversity (Jalal, 2024). Policy documents focus on managing diversity and promoting national identity within a democratic framework. Mashuri et al. (2024) discuss the difficulties of implementing multicultural policies, while Jayadi et al. (2022) and Noor and Siregar (2015) analyze legal and educational frameworks for multicultural education.

Indonesia’s approach integrates multicultural education to foster empathy and understanding from an early age (Nabilah, 2024). The impact of Caldecott Medal-winning books on early multicultural education illustrates their role in shaping perceptions and reducing discrimination (Park, 2023). Content analysis of textbooks shows ongoing efforts to promote cultural diversity, although gaps in interfaith dialogue and curriculum reform remain (Syahdila, 2021; Noor and Siregar, 2015).

Disparities in educational access and quality affect the effectiveness of multicultural education, with affluent students receiving better opportunities (Munadi, 2020; Raja et al., 2022). In contrast, countries like Finland provide uniformly high-quality education (Harjatanaya and Hoon, 2020; Kidwell and Pentón Herrera, 2019). Banks advocate for equal opportunities for all children, suggesting that Indonesia needs to integrate multicultural education across all subjects and societal levels to fully realize its potential (and Adriany, 2017; Morganna et al., 2020; Zamroni et al., 2021).

Some other study works such as Agus et al. (2020), Cultural-Based Education of Tamansiswa as a Locomotive of Indonesian Education System (pp. 471–486), Springer. 10.1007 / 978–3 - 030–15604-6_29, then Sadiah et al. (2024), Global Diversity Values in Indonesia: An Elementary School High-Grade Indonesian Language Textbook Analysis. Lnternational Electronic Journal of Elementary Education, 10.26822/iejee.2024.338, also examine the implementation of multicultural education in Indonesia from a different perspective.

Harnessing the power of diversity: the pressing need for multicultural education

Solution alternative dispute resolution.

Multicultural education in Indonesia aims to address societal disputes and intolerance by transforming its diverse culture into an asset and uniting its various groups (Kuraedah et al., 2018; Marzuki et al., 2020). While universities provide substantial national and ideological education, they often lack adequate intercultural education, evidenced by ongoing conflicts and low understanding of national culture among students (Raihani, 2018). According to Stephen Hill from UNESCO, successful multicultural education involves the entire society, not just teachers and the government, because of its multidimensional nature (Nakaya, 2018) to fosters harmony and tolerance, addressing future social problems and preventing disputes despite its unmeasurable effects (Dewi et al., 2020; Truna et al., 2022).

In the Indonesian context, to address teacher underpreparedness, it is essential to build comprehensive teacher training programs that focus on multicultural competencies (Pang et al., 2011) and integrate multicultural literacy across subjects (Nabilah, 2024). In addition, addressing structural challenges and student resistance is essential for effective delivery of multicultural education (Gorski, 2012). Culturally responsive pedagogy should be promoted to prepare prospective teachers for diverse classrooms (Carnes and Weinburgh, 2022), and curricula should be adapted to reflect the multicultural context of Indonesian society (Komalasari, 2023; Nurhayati et al., 2022).

Nurturing students without severing their cultural roots, fostering a vibrant tapestry of identities.

Multicultural education is crucial to prevent cultural loss in globalization, requiring students to understand global and cultural knowledge and addressing potential cultural friction through media and technology (Malla et al., 2021). Tilaar, H.A.R., emphasizes the importance of cross-cultural education in building a new Indonesia, citing successful examples from diverse societies for valuable insights (Nuryadi et al., 2020; Suri and Chandra, 2021; Ubaidillah et al., 2020). Indonesia’s rich cultural diversity is a valuable resource that must be preserved and used as a model for cultural development.

Forging the bedrock upon which the national curriculum’s masterpiece is sculpted.

Multicultural education is crucial for curriculum development to cater to diverse student needs (Setyono and Widodo, 2019; Supriyatno and Ubabuddin, 2019). The following steps can guide the creation of a multicultural curriculum:

• Adopt a relevant curriculum philosophy: align it with the goals and functions of each education level;

• Redefine curriculum content: shift from purely substantive content to include moral values, procedures and essential skills;

• Apply inclusive learning theories: consider social, cultural, economic and political diversity;

• Competitive learning methods: base student learning processes on competitive methods with other groups; and

• Comprehensive assessment: evaluate all aspects of student talent and personality with varied methods tailored to the material.

Indonesia’s cultural diversity necessitates a multicultural education framework to strengthen national identity and prepare future generations for global competition. Countries like the USA, Australia and Canada have successfully integrated multicultural education in both formal and informal settings (Al Mufadda et al., 2020). Therefore, curriculum planners at all levels must systematically incorporate cultural elements. Reflecting Indonesia’s national motto, Bhineka Tunggal Ika, curriculum development should embrace cultural diversity through a multicultural approach. While Laws Number 22 of 1999 and Number 32 of 2004 support multicultural education, they do not directly mandate its relevance to curriculum development in Indonesia.

Embarking on a journey toward an Indonesian society that embraces its cultural kaleidoscope.

Indonesia’s multicultural society reflects not only ethnic diversity but also rich cultural variety, rooted in mutual respect, tolerance and appreciation across different civilizations. These differences should not hinder unity in achieving the goals of the 1945 Constitution and Pancasila. The nation’s founders embraced this diversity, as reflected in Article 32 of the 1945 Constitution: “The (Indonesian) nation’s culture is the pinnacle of culture in the regions.”

The implementation of the independent learning curriculum is vital for fostering cultural literacy and tolerance among students from diverse backgrounds (Bartl, 2023). The Ministry of Education and Culture’s focus on Pancasila competencies prepares students for active participation in a multicultural society (Nifriza et al., 2023). This approach aligns with studies advocating for the integration of multicultural education to promote respect and understanding of cultural diversity (Hartinah et al., 2023; Nabilah, 2024). While the curriculum reduces administrative burdens on teachers, it also resonates with the principles of multicultural education, crucial in a pluralistic society like Indonesia (Efendi and Lien, 2021).

The curriculum’s emphasis on developing Pancasila students aligns with multicultural education goals, including democratic values, humanism and pluralism (Silalahi and Yuwono, 2018). Blended learning strategies further support independent learning skills necessary for navigating a diverse, digital world (Efendi and Lien, 2021; Syahdila, 2021; Yaqin and Taufikin, 2023).

Ultimately, Indonesia’s independent learning curriculum strengthens social cohesion and harmony, promoting cultural literacy and appreciation of diversity (Nifriza et al., 2023; Silalahi and Yuwono, 2018). Establishing a multicultural society requires collective awareness and deeper engagement with politics, justice, human rights and ethics, despite ongoing challenges (Noer et al., 2019). Collaborative efforts, including discussions, seminars and revisiting ethnographic studies, are essential for advancing multicultural education and addressing its challenges.

Socio-political factors.

The socio-political landscape in Indonesia presents several factors that can hinder the progress of multicultural education. These factors include the rise of socio-cultural conflicts, the potential for diversity to lead to issues such as racism and radicalism if not managed properly (Adon, 2021) and the challenges and gaps identified in the current basic education curriculum (Nabilah, 2024). Additionally, the comparative analysis of textbooks suggests that there may be inconsistencies in the integration of multicultural values across different educational levels (Maulidiah et al., 2023).

Interestingly, while Cathrin and Wikandaru (2023) outline approaches to implementing multicultural education, it also acknowledges the existence of obstacles to its effective implementation. Hutabarat (2023) delves into the dynamics of religious pluralism and the challenges that arise in a religiously diverse society, which can impact social harmony and education. Hartinah et al. (2023), although focused on a specific school, illustrate how multicultural education management can foster tolerance and respect for diversity, suggesting that broader socio-political support is necessary for such initiatives to succeed on a national scale. Hassanpour et al. (2022), while not directly related to Indonesia, highlight structural and executive barriers to multicultural education that could be analogous to the Indonesian context.

Challenges and opportunities for implementing multicultural education in Indonesia

Challenges.

Indonesia’s multicultural education faces challenges because of a fragmented curriculum that often lacks comprehensive integration of multicultural elements, hindering the formation of an inclusive national identity (Dewi, 2021; Nandang Mustafa, 2023; Silalahi and Yuwono, 2018). Additionally, the lack of adequate training and resources for teachers results in biased and superficial delivery of multicultural content, which can create discomfort in the classroom (Hartinah et al., 2023; Haswani et al., 2023; Liu and Milman, 2013; Nabilah, 2024)`.

Indonesia’s rich social and cultural diversity presents further challenges in aligning different religious norms within education, although efforts to promote harmony and tolerance are ongoing (Annisa and Tabassum, 2023; Dachlan, 2023; Hutabarat, 2023; Ibrahim et al., 2023; Ristawati and Salman, 2023; Rofi’i and Alfiani, 2024). Discrimination and stereotypes in educational settings exacerbate the marginalization of minority students, highlighting the need for stronger multicultural awareness (Bustomi et al., 2021; Wibowo et al., 2023; Warsame, 2023; Seguino, 2022; Lubis and Buana, 2020).

Moreover, many teachers and educational institutions are not yet psychologically or institutionally prepared to effectively integrate multicultural education (Avakyan and Vinogradova, 2018; Mutiah et al., 2020). Geographical and infrastructural limitations also impede the widespread implementation of multicultural education across Indonesia (Maulana et al., 2024). Therefore, comprehensive curriculum reform is needed to incorporate multicultural elements and prepare students for a diverse society (Nabilah, 2024; Sari et al., 2022; Suryaman and Juharyanto, 2020). The development of information technology presents opportunities to enhance multicultural education, although there are concerns about the erosion of national identity in the digital age (Rokhayati Rosa, 2020).

Opportunities.

Multicultural education in Indonesia plays a crucial role in strengthening national identity by embracing and celebrating the country’s rich diversity. It fosters tolerance and inclusivity and prepares students for a globalized world, contributing to a more tolerant and inclusive generation (Mashuri et al., 2024). Integrating multicultural elements into national symbols, like batik, not only highlights cultural richness but also serves as a tool to instill national pride, particularly among the youth (Candra and Saptatiningsih, 2023).

Multicultural education promotes tolerance, social harmony and peace, especially in Indonesia where interfaith tensions persist. Teaching values like respect, dialogue and conflict resolution helps students coexist peacefully (Doniyorov et al., 2023; Fadhilah, 2024; Salleh et al., 2021; Yusuf et al., 2020; Manurung, 2017; Noer et al., 2019; Utomo and Wasino, 2020).

Multicultural education also encourages interfaith collaboration within schools, enriching the learning experience and building social networks. Institutions like CRCS and ICRS incorporate interfaith dialogue into their curricula, shaping students’ views on inclusivity (Noor and Siregar, 2015). Interfaith youth activists demonstrate civic values and social causes advocacy, while Catholic religious education adapts to respect other faiths, promoting interfaith education as a model for broader reform (Virdei Eresto Gaudiawan et al., 2023; Hadi Kusuma and Susilo, 2020).

The Indonesian Government is actively supporting multicultural education through policies like the National Education System Law and the Independent Learning Curriculum, which aim to enhance its success (Kim, 2021). The integration of Pancasila into educational practices reflects governmental recognition of the importance of multicultural education in maintaining national unity amid diversity (Anwar, 2021). However, more research is needed to fully understand the extent of government involvement and the effectiveness of these initiatives in promoting multicultural education in Indonesia (Ikhsan and Giwangsa, 2019).

Implications and recommendations

1. Recognizing research and policy gaps

   Special education in Indonesia lacks a holistic perspective, often focusing narrowly on teaching methods and student outcomes. There is insufficient data on the intersection of socio-economic status, gender and geographic disparities, particularly in rural areas. Future research should address these gaps by engaging government, educational institutions and non-governmental organizations to create comprehensive solutions.

2. Impact on policy and practice

   Indonesian special education policy is hindered by challenges such as cultural diversity, economic inequality and limited infrastructure. Decentralizing policies, empowering local education bodies, expanding teacher training and fostering collaboration between policymakers and educators can improve the education of students with disabilities.

3. Interfaith dialogue for inclusivity

   Interfaith dialogue is vital in fostering inclusive special education in Indonesia’s diverse regions. Varied religious and cultural attitudes toward disability often contribute to stigmatization. Engaging religious leaders and facilitating national and regional dialogues can promote understanding, while equipping educators with training and resources to support students with disabilities.

4. Addressing stagnation

   Special education progress in Indonesia is hindered by fragmented policies, underfunding and poor implementation. A national task force, regular monitoring and increased funding for special education are essential to overcome bureaucratic inefficiencies and ensure accountability.

5. Improving school and teacher preparedness

   Schools and teachers in Indonesia are often ill-prepared for special education because of inadequate resources, infrastructure and training. Introducing mandatory special education courses, ongoing professional development, government investment in infrastructure and partnerships with non-governmental organizations and the private sector are recommended to address these shortcomings.

Conclusions

This library research provides a comprehensive analysis of existing literature on multicultural education in Indonesia, synthesizing key insights and perspectives to inform policy decisions and practical strategies. By systematically reviewing academic literature, policy documents and reports, this study offers valuable insights into the challenges and opportunities associated with promoting tolerance, understanding and unity among diverse cultural groups in Indonesian education. The research underscores the importance of addressing institutional barriers, promoting curriculum reform and fostering community engagement to create a more harmonious and inclusive society in Indonesia, where cultural diversity is celebrated and valued.