General Systems Theory: Ideas and Applications

Citation

Andrew, A.M. (2003), "General Systems Theory: Ideas and Applications", Kybernetes, Vol. 32 No. 4. https://doi.org/10.1108/k.2003.06732dae.001

General Systems Theory: Ideas and Applications

Lars SkyttnerWorld ScientificSingapore2001xii + 459 pp.ISBN 981-02-4175-5 (hardback); 981-02-4176-3 (paperback)hardback, $78.00 in USA/£50.17 from Amazon.uk

This wide-ranging treatment has the character of a textbook, with examples at the end of each chapter. It is presumably not used as such in the author’s affiliation of Gävle University in Sweden, since in the final chapter he comments regretfully that systems theory has declined in popularity and is no longer taught as an independent discipline in Swedish universities.

The book is in two parts, of which the first, with five chapters, corresponds to “ideas” in the title, and has the heading: “The Ideas and Why”. The second part, with six chapters, has the heading: “The Applications and How”.

The first part begins with a historical review starting with ancient Greece and going on to review the contributions of later thinkers up to the apparent triumph of determinism with Isaac Newton as a key figure. The first challenge to this is attributed to Einstein’s relativity and to observations of atomic phenomena that produced quantum mechanics. A further challenge came with global communication and the large-scale problems that were seen to face society. These include threats of mass destruction and many less tangible but equally serious threats to the well-being of humans and their environment. The examination of these requires a different approach of the systems theory.

The treatment goes on to review what the author sees as the fundamentals of systems theory including discussion of what is meant by a “system”. In the third chapter existing system theories are reviewed, with notes on a total of 14 approaches in all, starting with those of Boulding, Miller and Beer. Lovelock’s “Gaia hypothesis” is included.

Of the remaining two chapters of the first part, one is a review of communication and information theory and the other of theories of brain and mind with particular attention to the nature and functions of consciousness.

In the second part of the book, focusing on applications, there is a chapter on “Artificial Intelligence and Life” which includes discussion of the danger of robotic take-over and the impossibility of imposing Asimov’s laws of robotic behaviour. Another is on “Organizational Theory and Management Cybernetics” which again begins with a historical review and emphasises a variety of organismic analogues of organisations. Another chapter is on “Decision Making and Decision Aids” and gives particular attention to computer-based decision support systems including those for military use, where the need for speedy response is specially evident.

A further chapter in the second part is on “Informatics” and reviews developments in communication including the Internet and Virtual Reality, as well as social spin-off under the headings of Cyberspace and Cyberpunk. There is then an important chapter on “Some of the Systems Methodologies” in which the need for rapid response is again emphasised since rapid change is a feature of modern life. It is acknowledged that what have been termed “wicked problems” can arise especially in social contexts. These are problems to which there is no solution that satisfies all the conditions. This brings to mind the “soft system methodology” associated with Checkland, which is mentioned but not described in detail.

Several specific methodologies are outlined in the chapter, including one due to the author which starts from the assertion that a problem can always be related to one of the main flows of matter, energy or information in a living system. From this starting point a computer program is constructed in the DYNAMO language due to Forrester, and from this useful conclusions can be drawn. The method has been successfully applied to the search and rescue service in the sea areas for which responsibility falls on Sweden.

The final chapter is on “The Future of Systems Theory” and emphasises again the importance of the approach in the present hazardous and complex world conditions. Critical comments made elsewhere, disputing the validity of such theory, are quoted and an attempt was made to refute them. The attempt seems to me to be only partially successful, for reasons given below.

The defining of basic terms such as “system” is not done with the rigour that Ashby brought to bear with his insistence that a system is an abstraction and not identical with the physical object on which it may be imposed. This is probably not important in the present context where the emphasis is on complexity rather than on the abstract idea. However, Skyttner appears to assume that his readers have intuition attuned to his own when he uses terms such as self-organization, purpose, reliability and power without an appropriate preamble. The meanings of these are relatively (but only relatively!) clear in the context of most artificial systems, or biological systems assumed to be directed towards a known goal, but they are used in the book without such restrictions.

Part of the trouble is that quotations are made from many sources without adequately reconciling them, both in this definition section and elsewhere in the book. With so many sources quoted, the treatment of some of them has to be rather terse. The book would be an admirable basis for a course of study in which the original publications were also consulted and discussed.

The treatment fully supports one of the claims that can be made in defence of a valid and useful body of systems theory, namely that there are vitally important problems that require a holistic “systems” approach. It is impossible not to be impressed by the author’s enthusiasm and crusading spirit in stressing the need for this.

On the other hand, reference to a General Systems Theory implies that there is a body of theory applicable to widely diverse complex systems. The fact that the treatment here brings in many dissimilar approaches would seem to negate its claim to such generality. In this respect, the critical comments quoted in the final chapter have not been entirely refuted. Nevertheless, the book covers a great deal of important and useful materials in an enthusiastic and readable style and it is clearly based on much study and acquaintance with the literature, to which it is a valuable addition.

Alex M. Andrew