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Ethical Issues in Covert, Security and Surveillance Research

ISBN: 978-1-80262-414-4, eISBN: 978-1-80262-411-3

ISSN: 2398-6018

Publication date: 9 December 2021

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Citation

(2021), "Index", Iphofen, R. and O'Mathúna, D. (Ed.) Ethical Issues in Covert, Security and Surveillance Research (Advances in Research Ethics and Integrity, Vol. 8), Emerald Publishing Limited, Leeds, pp. 211-218. https://doi.org/10.1108/S2398-601820210000008015

Publisher

:

Emerald Publishing Limited

Copyright © 2022 Ron Iphofen and Dónal O'Mathúna

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These works are published under the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY 4.0) licence. Anyone may reproduce, distribute, translate and create derivative works of these works (for both commercial and non-commercial purposes), subject to full attribution to the original publication and authors. The full terms of this licence may be seen at http://creativecommons.org/licences/by/4.0/legalcode

INDEX

Abuse of power
, 24

Acceptance approach
, 147

Accountability
, 125

Advanced Big Data Value Chain for Public Safety and Personal Security (AEGIS)
, 84

Algorithms
, 23

American Society for Public Administration (ASPA)
, 35

Analogue surveillance in digital world
, 178–179

ANOM
, 184–188

Anonymity
, 39, 204

Anti-apartheid Movement (AAM)
, 182

Anticipation
, 26

Arab Spring
, 2

Artificial intelligence (AI)
, 73–74, 189–191

Australian Federal Police (AFP)
, 184

Australian National Health and Medical Research Council (ANHMRC)
, 29–30

Autoethnography
, 47

Autonomy
, 24

emerging demands for
, 20–21
Being Covert
, 4

Bias, embedding of persistent outliers and
, 61–65

Big Data
, 7, 208–209

and ‘datafication’ of society
, 72–73

analytics
, 62

continuity (or not) of data science research ethics
, 74–75

divide
, 81–85

as enabler of growth
, 73–74

Governance and Legislation
, 85

and its impact on privacy
, 75–81

from public sector perspective
, 84–85

for public use
, 84–85

Big Data Value Association (BDVA)
, 79

Black box
, 63

Bottom-up approaches
, 149–151

British Social Attitudes (BSA)
, 187

British Society of Criminology (BSC)
, 34

British Sociological Association (BSA)
, 31

Bundesverfassungsgericht (BVerfG)
, 122–123
Capabilities
, 133

Capacity of individuals
, 19

Care
, 10

Care Act 2014
, 101

Causation
, 56–58, 64

Charter of Fundamental Rights (CFR)
, 120

Chemical, Biological, Radiological and Nuclear weapons (CBRN weapons)
, 133

Chicago sociology
, 3

Citizen engagement
, 26

Closed Circuit Television (CCTV)
, 22, 124–125, 178

Code of ethics
, 42

Coercion
, 11

Commercial advertising
, 3

Commercial uses of surveillance
, 13

Community policing
, 22

Community-based approaches
, 8, 147–148

Concept mapping
, 168

Confidential Human Source
, 185

Confidentiality
, 33, 39, 97, 163, 204

Confidentiality Advisory Group (CAG)
, 101

Confirmability
, 171

Confounding variable
, 57

Confrontational
, 22

Consent
, 31–33, 204 (see also Informed consent)

research without
, 36–37

Consented/consensual surveillance
, 201

Consenting
, 3

Consumers
, 3

Context
, 201–202, 207–208

Contrived methods
, 168

Control
, 10, 31–33

Corporate espionage
, 12

Corporate practices
, 11

Correlation
, 58–59

of data
, 56

predicting future on strength of past
, 65–68

Coventry dilemma
, 11

Covert

being
, 4

studies
, 5–6

Covert observation
, 2

Covert research
, 2, 36, 42

‘asking for subjects’ consent
, 46–47

autoethnography and online research
, 47

covert method most suitable way of getting into field
, 45–46

covert research
, 48

guidance for policymakers on
, 205–209

guidance for reviewers on
, 200–205

informed consent
, 44

informed consent inevitably concerns only initial research design
, 45

informing subjects
, 43–44

learned through unintentional covert research
, 44–45

lying must be exception
, 43

moderate defence of grounds for
, 43

overt and covert research not clearly distinguishable
, 43

radical approach
, 48–50

researcher chooses to hide identity
, 46

risk of causing harm with qualitative research
, 47

superiority of situated ethics
, 48

Covert surveillance

of activist groups by undercover police
, 178–184

by human beings
, 178–179

COVID-19 pandemic
, 2, 12, 14

Credibility
, 170

Crime
, 20

prevention technologies
, 24

Criminal acts
, 34

Criminal law
, 34

Critical security studies
, 146

Cross-validation
, 36

Cryptography
, 24

Culture of surveillance
, 22
Dark Internet
, 21

Data analytics
, 78, 203

Data collection on people
, 59–60

Data management
, 23

Data ownership
, 85–88

Data processing technologies
, 23

Data protection
, 31, 32, 120, 122–123, 125

Data slippage
, 18, 23

Data sovereignty
, 87

Data tracking technologies
, 191

Datafication
, 81

of society
, 72–73

Dataveillance
, 85

Deception
, 2–3, 6, 206–207

Deceptive research

guidance for policymakers on
, 205–209

guidance for reviewers on
, 200–205

Decryption, rights and wrongs of
, 186–188

Deductive reasoning
, 161–162

Deductive research
, 162

Deep internet
, 21

Dependability
, 171

Deterrents
, 133

Deutsche Demokratische Republik (DDR)
, 121

Digital ecosystem
, 20

Digital modernity
, 19

Digital recording
, 163

Digital revolution
, 20

Digital technologies
, 21

Digitalisation
, 19

Discrimination
, 81–85

Distrust
, 2, 208

Domestic extremists
, 183–184

Dual use
, 24, 133

capacity
, 133

DURC
, 139–141

framework for defining accountability and responsibility in research
, 133–139

Dual use research of concern (DURC)
, 133, 139–141

Due Process
, 35

Duties of researchers
, 37–39

Duty of confidentiality
, 34
Economic and Social Research Council (ESRC)
, 32

Economics
, 19

Education
, 188–191

Educational technology (EdTech)
, 187, 189–191

Embedding of persistent outliers and bias
, 61–65

Emotional AI
, 188–191

Encryption, rights and wrongs of
, 186–188

End-users
, 168–169

Entitlement
, 10

Equality
, 35

Espionage
, 11

Establishing trust
, 169–171

Ethical engagement
, 10

Ethical grid
, 193

Ethical issues
, 178

of dual use
, 24

Ethical research
, 37–39

approach
, 162–165

in sensitive security domains
, 171–172

Ethical review
, 37

Ethical rules
, 29

Ethics

of care
, 26

challenges
, 81

of espionage
, 11

of journalism
, 13

of monitoring
, 11–12

review committees
, 7

Ethnicity of students
, 59

Ethnographic methods
, 167

EU Agency for Network and Information Security (ENISA)
, 77–78

Europe, privacy in
, 119–120

European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR)
, 110

European Data Protection Supervisor (EDPS)
, 74

‘European legal and ethical standards for the protection of citizens’ privacy
, 127–128

European Privacy Association
, 80

European Union (EU)
, 75, 120

Evidence-gathering activity
, 4

Exploitation
, 11
Fabrication
, 21

Face recognition in social media
, 24

Facial recognition systems
, 14

Fairness
, 35

False positives
, 23

Falsification
, 21

Financial model
, 13

Focus groups
, 167
Gender equality in science
, 26

General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR)
, 120

General practitioners (GPs)
, 60, 96

General Regulation on the Protection of Personal Data (GDPR)
, 76

German Census Case (1983)
, 122–123

German experiences of security agencies
, 120–122

Germany, privacy in
, 119–120

Gestapo
, 120–122

Google
, 38

Google Classroom
, 188

Governance
, 26

of education technology in schools
, 189

Government institutions
, 150
Harm
, 2, 4

Harmless surveillance
, 10

Health and Social Care Act 2012
, 102

Health and Social Care Information Centre
, 102

Health data
, 60

Health Protection
, 99–100

Health Research Authority (HRA)
, 101

Health Service Regulations 2002
, 98–99

Health surveillance using health data
, 96–98

Health-related surveillance
, 94

Helsinki Declaration
, 61

Hidden bias
, 62–63

Historic data processing
, 60

Human agency
, 20

Human behaviour
, 2

Human dignity
, 38, 75–77

Human factors approach
, 166

Human rights
, 33, 38

Humanitarian space
, 146

Humanitarian workers
, 146
ICTs
, 19, 22–23

Immersive fieldwork
, 5

Inappropriate surveillance technologies
, 24

Inclusiveness
, 26

Incomplete disclosure
, 5

Independent advisory board
, 111–113

Independent oversight
, 125

‘Individuals’ control over personal data
, 75

Inductive reasoning
, 161–162

Inductive research
, 162

Inequality
, 2

Infiltration
, 181

Inform policy
, 208–209

Information privacy
, 31–33

Informed consent
, 36, 44, 60

inevitably concerns
, 45

Innovative methodological approaches
, 3

Institutional Review Boards (IRBs)
, 3, 6, 42, 132, 134, 138–139

Integrity
, 26

International authorship
, 7

International Data Space Association (IDSA)
, 87

Internet
, 21, 123

environment
, 20

Internet of things (IoT)
, 124

Intrusive threat
, 160

Intrusiveness
, 7
Journalism
, 13

Journalists
, 4
Knowledge communicating back to end-users and stakeholders
, 168–169

Knowledge elicitation

conducting
, 165–166

methods
, 166–168

Knowledge management in security
, 153–155

Knowledge of truth
, 48
Language Model for Dialogue Applications (LaMDA)
, 189

Large-scale data analytics
, 56–57

Late modernity
, 19

Laundering surveillance
, 185–186

Law and judicial control
, 108

judicial review
, 111

limits to ability to scrutinise merits of individual decisions
, 109–111

room for conflicting legislative purposes
, 108–109

Law enforcement authorities
, 21

Leaky containers
, 23–24

Legality
, 61

Legislation
, 61

Legitimacy
, 58–61

Liberal democracies
, 2

4 Little Trees
, 190–191
Memorandum of Understanding (MoU)
, 94

Metropolitan Police
, 181

Micro-targeting
, 13

Military
, 137

Mixed methods
, 162

Modern civilisation
, 39

Motor insurance policies
, 63

Mutual augmentation
, 21
National Health Service Act 2006
, 96

National Public Order Intelligence Unit (NPOIU)
, 179–180

National Security Agency (NSA)
, 178

Naturalistic observation methods
, 7

Non-health surveillance using health data
, 102–103

Non-health-related purposes

law and judicial control
, 108–111

social legitimacy of health data sharing through institutional design
, 105–108

UK legal framework for use of health data
, 95–105

Non-proportionate surveillance technologies
, 24

Non-reactivity
, 163

‘Notice and consent’ model
, 80–81

Novelists
, 4

Nuremberg Code
, 36, 61
Observation
, 5

Observational methods
, 167

Observational studies
, 5

Oligopoly
, 22

Online research
, 47

Open access to research data and publications
, 26

Operation Trojan Shield
, 184–188

Organisational approaches (see Systems-based approaches)

Organisational research
, 31–32
Patient information
, 94

Persistent outliers and bias, embedding of
, 61–65

Personal data protection
, 23

Personal data space (PDS)
, 79

Personal data store approach
, 77–80

Phantom Secure
, 184

Phone interception
, 24

PIAG
, 97–98, 101

Placebo
, 3

Plagiarism
, 21

Policing
, 11

Policymakers
, 2, 207–209

Political advertising
, 13

Political angle
, 13

Political threat
, 161

Politics
, 19

Post-academic research
, 19

Post-modern society surveillance in context of
, 18–20

Preferred approach
, 10

Privacy
, 7, 10, 24, 30–31, 120, 122–123, 126–127

and current state of technological development
, 123–125

by design
, 78

by design and by default
, 126–127

in Germany and Europe
, 119–120

information
, 31–33

limits of
, 33–35

protection
, 23

Privacy Enhancing Technologies (PETs)
, 78

Private investigators
, 13–14

Private sector
, 14

Private surveillance
, 13

Proportionality
, 110

ProPublica
, 192

Public administrations
, 19

Public interest
, 105, 204–205

Public sector
, 14

Public space
, 178

Public sphere
, 33

Purposive sampling
, 163–164
Qualitative research
, 7

risk of causing harm with
, 47

Quantified self practices
, 22
Radical approach
, 48–50

Recruitment of participants through professional networks
, 164

Reflexivity
, 26

Representativeness
, 35

Research (see also Covert research)

ANHMRC
, 29–30

approaches
, 200–201

without consent
, 36–37

ethical research
, 37–39

ethics
, 26, 133–134, 136

governance
, 136–138

information privacy
, 31–33

integrity
, 135–136

limits of privacy
, 33–35

philosophy
, 49

privacy
, 30–31

relationship
, 202

in sensitive domains
, 160–161

Research Ethics Committees (RECs)
, 3, 6, 42, 132, 134, 138–139, 141

Researcher positionality
, 208

Reserved territory
, 33

Responsible Research and Innovation (RRI)
, 26

Responsible surveillance
, 25–26

Responsiveness
, 26, 35

Restricting informed consent
, 5

Rights (human)
, 33, 38

Rights
, 33

Rights of citizenship
, 38

Rings of steel
, 14

Rules, Expectations & Security through Privacy-Enhanced Convenient Technologies Project (RESPECT Project)
, 23
Safeguarding participants and researchers
, 164–165

Sanctions, threat of
, 161

Scenarios
, 167

scenario-based modelling
, 168

Science
, 2

education
, 26

and innovation
, 19–20

Scientific method
, 2

Security
, 11, 126–127

emerging demands for
, 20–21

Security risk management
, 146

approaches to
, 147–149

conflict between procedures and experience
, 151–152

field experience
, 152

knowledge management in security
, 153–155

top-down and bottom-up approaches
, 149–151

training
, 152–153

Seedhouse
, 193

Self-surveillance
, 22

Sensitive domains, research in
, 160–161

Sensitive security domains, ethical research in
, 171–172

Sensory power
, 191

Sharing the wealth model
, 77–80

Signals intelligence
, 11

Situated ethics
, 202

Smartphones
, 124

Social cooling
, 81–85

Social costs
, 23

Social costs of surveillance
, 18, 22–25

Social demands
, 18, 20

Social institutions
, 19

Social legitimacy
, 94

demographic information
, 105–106

of health data sharing through institutional design
, 105

legislative purpose and (social) legitimacy
, 106–108

Social movements
, 121

Social policy
, 34–35

Social Policy Association (SPA)
, 33

Social profiling
, 21

Social Research Association (SRA)
, 34

Social sorting
, 18, 23, 81–85

Social subjectivity
, 20–21

Social welfare
, 11–12

Socialisation, lack of
, 25

Socialist Workers Party (SWP)
, 183

Societal trust
, 22–25

Sousveillance
, 22, 25

Special Demonstration Squad (SDS)
, 179, 182–183

Spy satellites
, 12

Spycops’ Scandal

analogue surveillance in digital world
, 178–179

domestic extremists
, 183–184

issues raised during UCPI
, 179–180

other harms of undercover surveillance
, 181

proportionality of political intelligence gathering by undercover police
, 182–183

undercover surveillance and human rights
, 180–181

Stakeholders
, 168–169

Stanford psychology
, 3

Stasi
, 120–122

State actors
, 25

State security
, 120

State surveillance
, 11, 21

Stigmatisation and manipulation of civil rights
, 77

Subjectivity of people
, 19

Subversives
, 183–184

Superiority of situated ethics
, 48

Surveillance
, 11, 18, 60, 121, 188–191

commercial uses of
, 13

in context of post-modern society
, 18–20

creep
, 18

culture
, 18

design of
, 20

ethics
, 10–11

objection
, 60

of others
, 22

in private
, 12

in public places
, 11

responsible surveillance
, 25–26

social costs of
, 18, 22–25

social subjectivity and emerging demands for security and autonomy
, 20–21

surveillance/function creep
, 23

surveillance/research distinction
, 101

understandings of
, 21–22

Surveillance research
, 4

guidance for reviewers on
, 200–205

Surveillance society
, 18

Surveillance Studies Network
, 10, 18

Surveillance Study Network
, 22, 27n2

Systems-based approaches
, 8, 148–149
Targeting advertising
, 13

Task analysis
, 167

Tearoom Trade (Humphrey)
, 47

Technological surveillance
, 178

Terrorism
, 11, 20–21

Top-down approaches
, 149–151

Training
, 152–153

Transferability
, 170–171

Transparency
, 125

Transparency in evolving world of big data analytics
, 80–81

Treaty of Lisbon
, 120

Triangulation
, 36

Triple helix innovation model
, 19

Trust
, 49

public
, 21, 24

social
, 18, 24

social costs of surveillance and societal trust
, 22–25

Trustworthiness of qualitative data
, 169–171

Twitter
, 38
UK legal framework for use of health data
, 95

additional requirements
, 98–99

background and legal context
, 95–96

disclosure to home office under MOU
, 103–105

Health Protection
, 99–100

health surveillance using health data
, 96–98

non-health surveillance using health data
, 102–103

surveillance/research distinction
, 101

Undercover police
, 178–184

Undercover Policing Inquiry (UCPI)
, 179

issues raised during
, 179–180

Undercover work
, 181

Undisclosed research
, 36

Unethical en masse
, 57

Unethical research procedures
, 2

United Kingdom (UK)
, 94

Universal Declaration of Human Rights states
, 30

University recruitment
, 62

US National Security Agency (NSA)
, 122

US Supreme Court
, 14
Value
, 73

Variety
, 73

Velocity
, 73

Veracity
, 73

Verbal protocol analysis
, 168

Volume
, 73

Voluntary participation
, 3

Vulnerability
, 3
Watchdog
, 112

Welfare (public/social)
, 11, 67

Wired
, 186

Workplace surveillance
, 11
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