Prelims

Abstract

This volume of the Contemporary Issues in Entrepreneurship Research series is an invited expert contribution and is designed around a theme of growing importance in the entrepreneurship community namely that of entrepreneurship in policing and criminal contexts. The author was formerly a ‘Career Constable’ and also later a ‘Professor of Entrepreneurship & Innovation’ which makes him an acknowledged expert in both fields. This monograph explores and develops theory and practice in an area which has not received a lot of academic scrutiny. It will be useful to scholars of entrepreneurship who have limited knowledge of how entrepreneurship manifests itself in policing and criminal justice contexts; and to policing scholars and practitioners who have a limited knowledge of the power of entrepreneurship to revolutionise policing in the twenty-first century. It is specifically written with both audiences in mind and the need to be theoretical and robust. It is also timely given the changes brought about by an era of austerity followed by the Covid-19 pandemic and social upheavals which have challenged and changed the way we police an ever-changing society.

This introduction is presented in three parts. The first sets the scene and provides an autoethnographic account of how this study came into being and the seminal academic studies that inspired it. This is important because the authors appreciation of how entrepreneurship as a philosophy pervades policing and criminal contexts evolved slowly over a number of years in the 1990s when he served as a police officer as a result of a combination of his policing experiences and personal study. The second section articulates the breadth and scope of the study. The third section provides an overview of the chapters which follow to guide readers expectations.

1. An Autoethnographic Account of the Genesis of this Study

This monograph is the result of many years of patient study into the topics of entrepreneurship in policing and criminal contexts which has been the subject of passionate interest to this author for over two decades now and has shaped his world view of policing. This author joined Grampian Police as a Constable in 1983 and being of an academic disposition, developed a passion for reading criminology textbooks and true crime books. The author became a proficient ‘thief-taker’ and studied every book he could source on criminal investigation and catching criminals. Between 1993 and 1997, he studied part time for an MA degree at Aberdeen University whilst still working full time in the police. In 1996, this author enrolled on an entrepreneurship module being taught by Dr Alistair R Anderson his future friend and mentor. The genesis of this study began in earnest that year, when this author was studying in the library at Aberdeen University gathering material for an essay on criminal entrepreneurship and by chance encountered the seminal studies of Dick Hobbs into the entrepreneurial nature of Detectives in the East End of London (Hobbs, 1988); and Levi (1985) on phantom Capitalists. The books had a profound effect upon his professional thinking because it introduced him to and invoked his continuing interest in entrepreneurship. As a result of reading the works of Hobbs and others, this author developed an abiding interest in the twin sub-topics of ‘Criminal-Entrepreneurship’ and ‘Entrepreneurial Policing’. Another seminal study which influenced the growing obsession was the book ‘Criminal Shadows’ by the psychologist and criminal profiler Professor David Canter (Canter, 1994). The interest was also stimulated by a comment by Alistair R Anderson that the author was academically bright and should consider conducting a PhD. These influences triggered an appreciation of the explanatory power of entrepreneurship theory to act as a change agent in contemporary policing and a continuing interest in entrepreneurial policing.

Over the next few years, this appreciation matured as this author reflected upon his experiences as a police officer and appreciated that he had been acting in an intrapreneurial and entrepreneurial manner. He also appreciated that many of the criminals he dealt with on a daily basis were also entrepreneurial by nature. It also stimulated the author to conduct further personal studies which resulted in an unpublished monograph on the entrepreneurial modus operandi of disorganised criminals (Smith, 1999); and another unpublished study into the links between entrepreneurship and criminality (Smith, 2000) which formed the basis of an application for a doctoral candidacy at Aberdeen University. The said proposal was accepted, but the title and scope of the doctoral study later evolved into a study about the socially constructed nature of entrepreneurship (see Smith, 2006). The author transferred his PhD studies to the Robert Gordon University in 2001 when his supervisor Alistair R Anderson transferred there on securing a Professorship. During his doctoral studies, this author began his academic career and secured a part time position as a Research Fellow. The idea for this monograph was born out of this apercu and these influences and the focus of this monograph was initially on the emergence and evolution of the term ‘entrepreneurial policing’ into the lexicon of policing but gradually evolved to include material on entrepreneurship in a wider policing and criminal context. In the ensuing years, the author continued to collect references and material on ‘criminal entrepreneurship’ and ‘entrepreneurial policing’.

In 2008, Sir Ronnie Flanagan made a plea for Chief Constables to take an entrepreneurial approach to policing and identified ‘Risk Aversion’ culture as being a major obstacle in achieving such transformation. Flanagan called for a national debate on risk aversion and culture change at a central government level. This has not materialised and as a result the early promise of the topic dissipated and although entrepreneurial policing has become an established area of academic study it has yet to make a significant impact on policing processes and practices. In 2008, the author also retired from the police after 25 years as a ‘career constable’ and took up a position as SIPR Lecturer in leadership and management at Aberdeen Business School, Robert Gordon University.

In 2009, this author held a SIPR Seminar on the subject entitled New Directions in Entrepreneurial Policing and Police Leadership at Robert Gordon University which resulted in articles in the Police Professional and Police Review Journals (see Smith, 2009b, 2009c) highlighting the importance of this paradigm. This author continued to research and publish on the topic and in the interim period, a stream of publications has emerged which mention the term ‘entrepreneurial policing’. At present, the term is still used ‘loosely’ by a group of enlightened Chief Officers, Politicians, and Policing Scholars for whom it means different things. Setting aside the theoretical and the conceptual underpinnings of the construct, there are many questions still to be answered. Will it engender practical outcomes? Should we develop and adopt new systems of entrepreneurial policing? What would these look like? This monograph addresses some of these questions. Its aim is to encourage others involved in policing scholarship and practice to consider the influence of entrepreneurship on policing and the criminal Justice system.

2. Articulating the Scope of this Monograph

This monograph explores the specific contemporary and under researched themes of ‘entrepreneurial policing’ and ‘criminal entrepreneurship’ and is concerned with specific applications, contexts and settings of entrepreneurship in criminal justice settings. Entrepreneurship pervades and influences what the police do, how they do it in the context of ever-changing external environments and accordingly this monograph critically opens up a new area of policing research, innovatively using theories of entrepreneurship, management, and leadership, to illustrate different perspectives on policing in which entrepreneurialism is present. It presents a scholarly discussion about concepts and theories underpinning the topic. This monograph and its contents are timely given the growing pressures upon policing in the twenty-first century including the growing appreciation of the entrepreneurial nature of criminality; the increasing criticism of the police and their methods in light of the death of George Floyd and the ‘Black Lives Matters’ movement which gained momentum as a result calls for new methods and philosophies of policing and new ways of doing things including calls for dismantling problematic policing departments and agencies and for ‘defunding the police’. Such radical change can only be implemented if better methods and models of policing are available and if new means of funding such changes are put in place. It is evident from several years of patient research into aspects of entrepreneurialism in policing and the wider field of criminal justice that there are numerous crossovers in the literatures of entrepreneurship, policing and criminality because innovation, transformation, and change are integral facets of all of these phenomena.

Despite acknowledging the existence of this overlap between entrepreneurialism and policing, there are various cultural and organisational factors which make the implementation of entrepreneurialism in policing and criminal justice contexts problematic. The chapters in this monograph collectively explore and develop entrepreneurial theory and practice and the focus is upon the evolution of the literature and on barriers to its effective implementation. This monograph offers a critical perspective on a key contemporary challenge in policing by articulating the concept, tracing it history, and providing a critical analytic commentary on why it has yet to make an impact on policing praxis. This critique traces its evolution in the academic literature from a critical conceptual and theoretical perspective supported by evidence-based micro-case studies. The chapters address fundamental challenging questions impacting future directions in policing and as a consequence, the focus is very much on the practical – what it is, why it is important to policing, and what measures have to be put in place to realise its true potential.

The concept of ‘entrepreneurial policing’ became in vogue as a transformatory ideology and discourse in academic policing circles during the 1990s. Yet despite initially making a tentative impact, it has not fulfilled its potential promise. It showed great promise but met with considerable resistance primarily because of austerity measures. Being a concept, it is developmental, and is, therefore, less concrete than a universal theory. Concepts develop over time and have ontological ramifications as they develop and come ‘into being’. This is an important distinction because entrepreneurial policing is the still an evolutionary notion which requires critical evaluation. Theories provide sound explanatory frameworks based on observations. At present, there is no unifying theory of entrepreneurial policing, despite the theoretical underpinnings discussed here. Entrepreneurial policing is best explained as a social concept, or an intellectual label trapped in academia where it exists as a muted, niche conversation.

Moreover, entrepreneurial policing is opaque and undefined and indeed, the concept is not mentioned by Newburn and Neyroud (2008) in their acclaimed Dictionary of Policing. At present, it is used ‘loosely’ by enlightened chief officers, politicians and policing scholars as a ‘catch-all’ to encompass innovative forms of policing. This positions it as an externally applied concept rather than an internally validated policing philosophy. Conceptually and theoretically, we have moved beyond this point because the term is in usage and it is up to readers to individually validate the concept as capable of implementation in a practical, everyday policing context. Therefore, each scholar must define and articulate what they mean by it. Nevertheless, it has theoretical and practical implications for contemporary and future policing practice and policy.

The purpose of this monograph is to provide an explanation of the term and to articulate why an understanding of entrepreneurship is vital in encouraging necessary change as for example in relation to the implementation of transformational leadership in the police service (Ritchie, 2010). Thus, although the terminology is currently in vogue, it is little more than rhetoric because traditionally, the term ‘entrepreneur’ itself lies out with the pragmatic lexicon of policing. Consequentially, the power of entrepreneurship to act as an organisational change agent remains untapped. This monograph presents some fascinating and novel ‘ideas’ which should be of interest to police officers, and academics, as they struggle to initiate change albeit the ideas have yet to be unleashed on the service. These conceptual and theoretical ideas are presented in conjunction with practical examples to assist the reader understand the idea and scope of entrepreneurialism in policing contexts (Harvey, 1989). An overarching aim of this work is to critically synthesise material and arguments normally separated within disparate literatures. The text will be useful to policing scholars whom it is hoped will encourage a critical dissemination of the ideas expressed herein. It should be of interest to scholars of entrepreneurship because it is an interesting and unusual application and/or setting of enterprise. It will interest practitioners within the wider field of criminal justice because the ideas are not restricted to the police, but to the Prison and Probation Services too because both are presently undergoing major structural changes which involve private enterprise. Undergraduate scholars in business, criminology and policing topics, may find this monograph useful in recognising and exploring the scope of entrepreneurialism and its potential impact on the criminal justice system. It will be of interest to Business School students and staff because entrepreneurship as manifested in policing and criminal contexts behaves differently from entrepreneurship in a free market context. Although the contents and examples in this monograph are primarily UK and US based, entrepreneurship in policing and criminal contexts also has an international reach and audience.

To understand any phenomenon, one must understand the nuances of its theories, themes and stories. Accordingly, throughout this monograph, we discuss how aspects of entrepreneurship theory such as intrapreneurship, corporate, and team entrepreneurship can be applied in a practical context to policing as transformational practices, illustrating how such theories and practices can be used in a practical context to benefit the service. For example, entrepreneurship theory applied to policing can help combat crime or it can be used in a contemporary policing environment, albeit it has to be legitimised on the mental map (Gould & White, 1972) of most officers. Existing theories of crime and entrepreneurship overlap at many points with those of policing, making it helpful to understand some of the internal and external drivers and influences involved in its ontological development. In terms of legitimacy, the importance of entrepreneurial policing received a boost when Sir Ronnie Flanagan (2008) made a call for a more entrepreneurial form of policing; and for an end to the culture of risk aversion. Indeed, Flanagan advocated a more entrepreneurial approach, arguing that within policing organisations risk aversion drives so much bureaucracy (Flanagan, 2008, p. 1). He called for more ‘dynamic and flexible policing’ and for ‘entrepreneurial and innovative solutions from the leaders of the police service as all levels’ (Flanagan, 2008, p. 1). Flanagan (2008, p. 36) singled out two individual British Police Forces as epitomising this new spirit of entrepreneurialism. These were North Wales and Kent. The former developed an innovative funding formula by selling police expertise to other forces and agencies; whilst the latter sold driving courses and were innovative in relation to organisational aspects of service delivery. A major flaw of the Flanagan report is that it did not clearly define entrepreneurial policing! Readers were left to work it out for themselves. Despite this plea, the British Police remain the most resistant of the public services in failing to embrace the ethos of entrepreneurialism.

For the purpose of this monograph, entrepreneurial policing is defined as

The implementation of new innovative ways of thinking and entrepreneurial processes and practices in policing contexts.

This definition is useful to theorists and practitioners alike, but a more nuanced and all-encompassing definition must be the focus of future research.

3. An Overview of the Monograph

This section provides an overview of the monograph and sets out what readers can expect to encounter and sets out what sub-topics are discussed. Chapter 1 is set out as follows. In Section 1.1, the concept of entrepreneurial policing, introduced above, will be expanded upon, and described in more detail. A brief discussion of what entrepreneurship is and is not, will be conducted to begin to illustrate the scope and power of entrepreneurship to revolutionise policing in the twenty-first century. Thereafter, several applications and settings of entrepreneurship, including corporate and team entrepreneurship, intrapreneurship, and social entrepreneurship are discussed and their relevance to policing highlighted. This is followed by a discussion of why entrepreneurship is of critical importance to the police service. Thereafter, a discussion is initiated in relation to what entrepreneurial policing means. In Section 1.2, the foundations of entrepreneurial policing are critically examined to illustrate that it is an evolutionary process and that it is derived from developments in new public management and new entrepreneurialism in the public services. The evolution of entrepreneurial policing has also been influenced by simultaneous developments in the literatures of criminal entrepreneurship and entrepreneurial leadership. In Section 1.3, the strands discussed above are drawn together to develop a greater understanding of the ‘entrepreneurship–policing nexus’. This is followed in Section 1.4 with a brief discussion in identifying the stakeholders in the entrepreneurial process. The chapter concludes with takeaway points.

Chapter 2 develops an understanding of policing culture and its anti-entrepreneurial nature. This is necessary to better understand organisational and cultural elements of policing that inhibit the development of a more entrepreneurial culture and outlook in the police and wider criminal justice settings. Thus, Section 2.1 provides a discussion of socio-culture and organisational barriers to entrepreneurial policing which require to be understood and overcome to implement an entrepreneurial policing culture. These include the antithical nature of the police rank structure in relation to the enactment of entrepreneurial practices; other organisational factors and barriers which inhibit its practice; and in particular, the need to challenge the existing military model of policing, which is at present, a dominant paradigm which stifles entrepreneurial behaviour. In Section 2.2, issues relating to police organisation in British and American policing organisations which hamper the implementation of entrepreneurial policing, are discussed. These relate to police culture, bureaucracy, and the risk averse nature of contemporary policing philosophies. The issue of police culture in relation to change is expanded upon and examples provided. A discussion of negative organisational traits associated with policing such as anti-entrepreneurialism and anti-intellectualism is conducted. In Section 2.3, other positive forms and structures of entrepreneurship of interest to policing, are introduced and discussed. These include cultivating a more entrepreneurial organisation; encouraging the stereotype of the ‘maverick’ officer; the privatisation of policing; and the commercialisation of policing services. These topics are of vital importance in implementing a more positive entrepreneurial culture to policing. In Section 1.4, an appreciation of the links between entrepreneurship and innovation in policing are developed. The main point is the need for the police to adopt a more innovative approach to its structures, operating practices and outlook to innovation. The chapter concludes with takeaway points.

Chapter 3 expands upon the points raised in Chapters 1 and 2 and continues with an exploration of the ‘Entrepreneurship–Leadership nexus’. This is an important chapter because it introduces and discusses the important element of leadership in initiating entrepreneurial cultures and organisational change. Section 3.1 introduces the topic by providing a broad brushstroke discussion of where the elements of policing, entrepreneurship and leadership sit in relation to one another. In Section 3.2, these themes are developed further by the introduction of a discussion on the development of the art of entrepreneurial management. This is followed in Section 3.3 by a wider discussion of the need to understand police leadership styles and the influence these have on entrepreneurial policing practices. In Section 3.4, a change of direction is taken to consider the changing semiotics of policing and how this understanding can be used to help facilitate a more entrepreneurial culture in policing. Section 3.5 continues the themes raised in Section 3.4 and provides two comparative models of police leadership which influence the semiotics of policing. These are the ‘commander versus executive’ model. In Section 3.6, the discussion returns to consideration of adopting leadership styles appropriate for changing times, including humble leadership and the implementation of agile leadership and agile teams. The chapter concludes with takeaway points.

Chapter 4 is devoted to developing a better understanding of the expanding paradigm of criminal entrepreneurship and how this understanding can be used by the police to help interdict crime and criminality, but in particular, serious and organised criminals. Section 4.1 provides a description of the existing crimino-entrepreneurial ecosystem to situate both policing and criminality in context with entrepreneurship theory. Section 4.2 expands upon this nuanced understanding and develops an enterprise-based model of criminal entrepreneurship. The chapter concludes with a summary of the main takeaway points.

Chapter 5 concentrates on academic tools and techniques which can be used to implement entrepreneurial policing into everyday practices. Section 5.1 discusses problems associated with implementing entrepreneurial policing and considers how best to overcome them. Section 5.2 discusses the topic of assessing personal and entrepreneurial self-efficacy in organisations and provides some examples such us The General Enterprising Tendency Test; Creativity Tests; and The Business Model You framework. Section 5.3 introduces academic methods of implementing new policing practices including SWOT Analysis, PESTEL Analysis, Process Mapping, Risk Management, the Business Model Canvas, Red Teaming, Agile Teams, and Appreciative Inquiry. The chapter concludes with takeaway points.

Chapter 6 relates to implementing entrepreneurial policing practices in complex scenarios. Section 6.1 narrates the case story of Albanian Organised Crime in the UK; and Section 6.2. narrates the contentious case story of American Police Gangs. Section 6.3 narrates the twin case stories of the implementation of intrapreneurial policing practices in the form of the Grampian Police Village Constable Scheme and of using innovative methods to reduce shoplifting amongst chaotic offenders. Section 6.4 presents the takeaway points of the chapter.

Chapter 7 seeks to consolidate and unify the main takeaway points discussed in the preceding chapters to develop a momentum in relation to entrepreneurial policing. Section 7.1, therefore, discusses the critical need to change police culture and introduce a more entrepreneurial modus operandi. In Section 7.2, the discussion is developed in relation to how the police can learn to lead more entrepreneurially. Section 7.3 continues the discussion of how to overcome obstacles and difficulties facing the police service in implementing entrepreneurial policing. Section 7.4 discusses the influence of politics and Covid-19 on policing practice in the UK. Section 7.5 looks at reversing the culture of risk aversion and ant-entrepreneurialism. Section 7.6 looks at reversing the police culture of anti-intellectualism. Finally, Section 7.7 looks to the future and the need to develop a more entrepreneurial edge to policing.