Prelims

Half Title Page

New Frontiers in Conflict Management and Peace Economics

Series Page

Contributions to Conflict Management, Peace Economics and Development

Series Editor: Manas Chatterji

Books in the series

Military Missions and their Implications Reconsidered: The Aftermath of September 11th, – edited by G. Caforioand G. Kummel

Managing Conflict in Economic Convergence of Regions in Greater Europe, – by F. Carluer

Cultural Differences between the Military and Parent Society in Democratic Countries, – edited by G. Caforio

Conflict and Peace in South Asia, – edited by M. Chatterji and B. M. Jain

War, Peace, and Security, – edited by J. Fontanel and M. Chatterji

Armed Forces and Conflict Resolution, – edited by G. Caforio, G. Kummel and B. Purkayastha

Regional Development and Conflict Management: A Case for Brazil, – by R. Bar-El

Crisis, Complexity and Conflict, – by I. J. Azis

Putting Teeth in the Tiger: Improving the Effectiveness of Arms Embargoes, – edited by M. Brzoska and G. A. Lopez

Peace Science: Theory and Cases, – by P. Gangopadhyay and M. Chatterji

Advances in Military Sociology: Essays in Honor of Charles C. Moskos (Two Volume Set), – edited by G. Caforio

Arms and Conflict in the Middle East, – by R. A. Attar

Economics of War and Peace: Economic, Legal, and Political Perspectives, – edited by B. E. Goldsmith and J. Brauer

Conflict, Complexity and Mathematical Social Science, – by G. Burt

Frontiers of Peace Economics and Peace Science, – edited by M. Chatterji, C. Bo and R. Misra

Ethnic Conflict, Civil War and Cost of Conflict, – edited by R. Caruso

Governance, Development and Conflict, – edited by M. Chatterji, D. Gopal and S. Singh

New Wars, New Militaries, New Soldiers? Conflicts, the Armed Forces and the Soldierly Subject, – edited by G. Kummel and J. Soeters

Cooperation for a Peaceful and Sustainable World, Part 1, – edited by C. Bo, M. Chatterji and H. Chaoyan

Cooperation for a Peaceful and Sustainable World, Part 2, – edited by L. Junsheng, C. Bo and H. Na

Nuclear Disarmament: Regional Perspectives on Progress, – edited by P. M. Kamath

Understanding Terrorism: A Socio-economic Perspective, – Edited by: R Caruso, A. Locatelli

The Evolving Boundaries of Defence: An Assessment of Recent Shifts in Defence Activities, – edited by R. Bellais

Business, Ethics and Peace, – Edited by L. Bouckaert & M. Chatterji

Emotions, Decision-Making, Conflict and Cooperation, – Edited by U. Luterbacher

Integral Ecology and Sustainable Business, – Edited by O. Jakobsen and L. Zsolna

Disarmament, Peace and Development – Edited by Reiner Braun, Colin Archer, Ingeborg Breines, Manas Chatterji and Amela Skiljan

Conflict Management, Peace Economics and Development, – edited by Manas Chatterj

How Do Leaders Make Decisions? Evidence from the East and West, Part A – Edited by Alex Mintz and Dmitry (Dima) Adamsky

How Do Leaders Make Decisions? Evidence from the East and West, Part B – Edited by Alex Mintz and Dmitry (Dima) Adamsky.

Title Page

Contributions to Conflict Management, Peace Economics and Development Volume 29

New Frontiers in Conflict Management and Peace Economics: With a Focus on Human Security

Edited by

Madhumita Chatterji

ABBS School of Management, Bangalore, India

and

Partha Gangopadhyay

Western Sydney University, Australia

United Kingdom – North America – Japan – India – Malaysia – China

Copyright Page

Emerald Publishing Limited

Howard House, Wagon Lane, Bingley BD16 1WA, UK

First edition 2021

Copyright © 2021 Emerald Publishing Limited.

Reprints and permissions service

Contact: permissions@emeraldinsight.com

No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, transmitted in any form or by any means electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise without either the prior written permission of the publisher or a licence permitting restricted copying issued in the UK by The Copyright Licensing Agency and in the USA by The Copyright Clearance Center. Any opinions expressed in the chapters are those of the authors. Whilst Emerald makes every effort to ensure the quality and accuracy of its content, Emerald makes no representation implied or otherwise, as to the chapters’ suitability and application and disclaims any warranties, express or implied, to their use.

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

ISBN: 978-1-83982-427-2 (Print)

ISBN: 978-1-83982-426-5 (Online)

ISBN: 978-1-83982-428-9 (Epub)

ISSN: 1572-8323 (Series)

Contents

Author Bios

Walid Bakry obtained BBA and MBA degrees respectively from Alexandria University and Arab University before undertaking an MS from Louisiana State University. He obtained a PhD from Western Sydney University. As a Lecturer in Finance at Western Sydney University, he has taught and coordinated various undergraduate and postgraduate banking and finance units. He also held various adjunct academic positions internationally.

Fernando Barreiro-Pereira is PhD in Economics and Business Administration and MPhil–MA (Econometrics and Economic Theory) by the Complutense University of Madrid. He is currently Professor of Macroeconomics and Spatial Economics, and Member of the Dean’s Advisory Committee in the Faculty of Economics and Business Administration of the Spanish University for Distance Education (UNED University) in Madrid, Spain. His doctoral dissertation won two special awards: the extraordinary doctorate award (2004) and the first award in Regional Science for the Community of Madrid in 2005. He has completed specialisation courses in Spatial Econometrics at Cornell University (1999), in Public Economy at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem (2000) and Harvard University-Real Colegio Complutense (2007 and 2008), Transportation Economics at MIT (2000 and 2008) and some appointments on Conflict Management and Peace Economics at the Indira Gandhi University of Delhi and in the Central University of Finance and Economics of Beijing in 2010. He has participated in 10 research projects, is co-author of 10 books on Economic Theory, has more than 60 presentations at international conferences and has published more than 40 research articles on Economics, Transportation and Conflict Management. He is currently a member of the Regional Science International and the Eastern Economic Associations.

Biswa Nath Bhattacharyay currently works as a Senior Consultant of Asian Development Bank and worked until August 2020. at Autoriti Monetari Brunei Darussalam (which is the central bank of Brunei) as Advisor. He is also University Professor and Advisor with Global Humanistic University and Fellow of Ifo Institute and the Center for Economic Studies(CESifo), Munich. He was Advisor with Asian Development Bank and ADBInstitute during 1998 and 2013. He obtained PHD from Iowa State University, USA and MS and BS (hons) from Indian Statistical Institute. His specializations include International trade, development, economics and finance; banking and financial sector development and stability; infrastructure financing and development; sustainable and inclusive development; and Asian studies and economics. He has published more than 100 articles and 32 books/book chapters such as Infrastructure for Asian Connectivity and ASEAN, China and India: Great Transformation.

Sanjoy Bhattacharya is a Professor at the University of York, UK and specialises in the health, medical, environmental, political and social history of nineteenth and twentieth centuries’ South Asia, as well as the history and contemporary workings of international and global health programmes around the world in the World Health Organization’s Global Health (WGO) Histories project, whose global activities are coordinated from inside the WHO’s Regional Office for Europe.

Jurgen Brauer started his academic career as a US Institute of Peace Scholar for the academic year 1988–1989. Over the years, he has held visiting professorships in Australia, Colombia, South Africa, and Spain, and recently retired as Emeritus Professor of Economics at Augusta University, Augusta, GA, USA. He currently is Visiting Professor of Economics at Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, Thailand. In 2006, he co-founded The Economics of Peace and Security Journal which he co-edited until 2020. Writing on topics such as military expenditure, private military companies, arms production, arms trade, and arms races, his recent work has focused on the firearms industry, the economics of mass atrocities as well as on the economics of peace and security, He has published (or forthcoming) many books, including with the university presses of Chicago, Cambridge, and Oxford, and is author or co-author of articles in highly ranked journals such as the Journal of Economic Perspectives and the Journal of Economic Literature.

Anindita Chakrabarti is an Associate Professor with ABBS School of Management, Bangalore. She has completed her Fellow Programme in Management from International Management Institute, New Delhi. Her dissertation topic was on the Indian energy sector and increasing its financial attractiveness. She has published papers and case study in international peer reviewed journals. She has also presented papers at national and international conferences. Her areas of interest are the energy sector, behavioral finance, public finance and financial markets. As a history graduate, she enjoys reading books, articles, etc. across disciplines and is a dedicated movie enthusiast.

Madhumita Chatterji is Director of ABBS School of Management. She has earned her BA, MA and MBA with university rank and gold medal and completed her PhD from Jadavpur University, Kolkata, India. She has completed a programme in History, Politics and Society from University of Oxford, UK. She was awarded a scholarship to attend the programme on Participant Based Learning at Harvard Business School, USA. She has three books to her credit: The Ksatriyas in Ancient India, Corporate Social Responsibility and Ethical Leadership – Indian and European Spiritual Approaches. She was the Guest Editor of the special issue entitled Exploring Spirituality and Social Responsibility published recently by Emerald Publishing. She is associated with various academic and non-academic bodies in the areas of research, teaching and training. She is an Executive Director of the Mahatma Gandhi International Research Centre for Conflict Prevention and Management.

Manas Chatterji is Professor of Management and Adjunct Professor in Economics and the Asian and Asian-American Studies Program at Binghamton University, State University of New York; Guest Professor, Peking University, China; Visiting Professor, Central University of Finance and Economics, China; and Distinguished Professor in Poznan University, Poland.

He is also a Richard P. Nathan Fellow in Public Policy at Rockefeller Institute of Government, SUNY. He is a Distinguished Fellow in the Program in Political Psychology and Decision Making (POP-DM) at Lauder School of Government, Diplomacy and Strategy, Israel.

He was also an Honorary Distinguished Professor at Indian Institute of Management-Calcutta, India, and George Mason University, U.S. He is an elected member of Polish Academy of Science, Committee on Regional Planning.

Professor Chatterji is currently a fellow of the International Organization of Economists for Peace and Security. He previously taught at the Wharton School at the University of Pennsylvania and had held visiting appointments at Cornell University, Erasmus University, University of Karlsruhe, University of Munster and many other universities in the United States, Europe, Asia and South Africa.

He has authored/edited more than thirty books and published about 80 scholarly articles in the areas of Peace Science, Military Spending, Disarmament, Economic Conversion, Conflict Management, Regional Science, Technology Management, Health Care Management, and Energy, Environmental and Urban Management.

Partha Gangopadhyay is an Associate Professor of Economics and as an analytical economist, he is formally rated among the top 2% of 50,663 economists of our globe and ranked 28 among all (1,427) living Australian economists listed by RePEc (both in terms of number of published journal pages weighted by number of authors). He is the Current Chair of Economists for Peace Security – Australia and an Executive Director of Mahatma Gandhi Centre at ABBS, Bangalore, India.

Keith Hartley is an Emeritus Professor of Economics at the University of York, UK. He is the Founding Editor of Defence and Peace Economics, 1990–2007 and currently a Special Advisor to the Editor, Defence and Peace Economics. He has written and oral evidence presented to House of Commons Defence Committee for its Enquiries into the UK Defence Industrial Strategy and Defence Commitments and Resources.

P. M. Kamath is a former Professor of Politics at the University of Bombay. He studied working of the Special Assistant to the President for National Security Affairs, 1961–1969 in the US. He is the first Indian to have studied working of the National Security Council (NSC) in the US. He advocated creation of a similar NSC in India. His awards include Fulbright Scholarship, School of Advanced International Studies, Johns Hopkins University, 1976–1977; ACLS/USEFI Senior American Studies Grant, Georgetown University, 1982–1984 among many other prestigious fellowships.

Stefan Markowski is presently Professor and Chair of Management at the College of Management, the University of Information Technology and Management in Rzeszow, Poland and an Honorary Vising Fellow at the School of Business, UNSW Canberra at the Australian Defence Force Academy in Canberra, Australia, where he lectured between 1989 and 2018. In 2018, he was a Senior Eisenhower Fellow at the NATO College in Rome, Italy. Prior to his appointment at UNSW, he was Principal Economist at the Bureau of Industry Economics in Canberra, Australia and, earlier, a senior economist at the Centre for Environmental Studies in London, the United Kingdom. His research interests include defence economics and management, factor mobility and migration. He has published widely in all these areas.

Norio Okada was Director of the Disaster Prevention Research Institute, at Kyoto University from 2009 to 2011 and is now Professor Emeritus of Kyoto University. He currently acts as an Adviser to a IDiARRG at Kwansei Gakuin University in Japan. He studied infrastructure planning, water resource management, and systems methodology at Kyoto University, gaining a BEng (1970), an MEng (1972), and a DrEng (1977).

Uma A. Segal is a Curators’ Distinguished Professor, School of Social Work, University of Missouri - St. Louis, USA. Her area of research interest and publication are immigrant and refugee integration in global perspective. She has participated in research projects on cross-national comparisons of migration in Athens (Greece), Sofia (Bulgaria) and Tokyo (Japan). A Fulbright Specialist on migration, she provided consultation to the Government of Portugal’s High Commission for Migration. As Editor-in-Chief of the Journal of Immigrant & Refugee Studies (2004–2012), she redirect its mission towards an international, interdisciplinary focus, exploring all aspects of human migration.

Agung Suwandaru is a Lecturer of Sekolah Tinggi Ilmu Tarbiyah Al Urwatul Wutsqo Jombang, East Java, Indonesia. He is a Doctoral Scholar at School of Business, Western Sydney University funded by the Ministry of Religious Affairs scholarship programme (programme 5000 Doktor), Republic of Indonesia.

Frank C. Zagare is UB Distinguished Professor of Political Science. A former Vice President of the International Studies Association, he has served on the Advisory Panel of the National Science Foundation, on the editorial boards of International Studies Quarterly, International Interactions and Oxford Bibliographies Online in International Relations, as a Panellist for the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering and Medicine and as a member of the Presidential Nominating Committee among many of his leadership roles.

Laszlo Zsolnai is Professor and Director of the Business Ethics Center at the Corvinus University of Budapest. He is President of the European SPES (Spirituality in Economics and Society) Institute in Leuven, Belgium and Fellow of the Royal Society of the Arts in London, UK. He has been a Guest Professor/Visiting Scholar at the University of Cambridge, the University of Oxford, the University of California at Berkeley, Georgetown University, the University of Richmond, Concordia University Montreal, the University of St. Gallen, Bocconi University Milan and the Netherlands Institute for Advanced Study.

His most recent books include The Collaborative Enterprise: Creating Values for a Sustainable World (2010. Oxford, UK: Peter Lang Academic Publishers), The Palgrave Handbook of Spirituality and Business (2011. Houndmills, UK, New York, NY: Palgrave Macmillan); Beyond Self: Ethical and Spiritual Dimensions of Economics (2014. Oxford, UK: Peter Lang Academic Publishers); The Spiritual Dimension of Business Ethics and Sustainability Management (2015. Springer) and Ethics, Meaning and Market Society (2018. Berlin, Germany: Routledge)

List of Tables and Figures

Chapter 1

Chapter 2

Chapter 3

Chapter 4

Chapter 5

Chapter 6

Chapter 7

Chapter 11

List of Contributors

Foreword

For the last three or four decades, we have seen a lot of publications and scholarly activities around the world in the area of Conflict Management, Peace Economics, and Peace Science.

There are a number of book series on these subjects. Also, there are many professional organizations arranged international meetings and other activities in these areas. Some of the organizations are: Peace Science Society (International) and Economics of Peace and Security, etc. The journal of Peace Science Society which I briefly edited many years ago -Conflict Management and Peace Science- is a leading publication in the field. Extensive data about Conflicts, War and Peace are available in many datasets such as COW War Data, and other publications by such organizations like International Red Cross, and Catholic University at Leuven, Belgium. Another source of data is SIPRI, which publishes for many years extensive data on military expenditure, security, and arms transfers.

Although we have considerable amount of activities in the area of peace economics, conflict management and peace Science, it is a relatively new social science discipline. This is a multi-disciplinary Social Science integrating the subject matter of Peace with Economics, Sociology, and Anthropology, Law, and Engineering, etc.

Based on available time series, cross section, and panel data, highly sophisticated analysis have been conducted using advanced techniques of Econometrics and Management Science, etc. There are also many case studies on conflicts such as between Israel and Palestine, other conflicts in the Middle East and South Asia have been published.

The primary sources of the theoretical basis of Peace Science have been developed by Walter Isard in his books like Conflict Analysis & Practical Conflict Management Procedures; Arms Races, Arms control, and Conflict analysis, and many other books authored by him. He has also developed a broad approach integrating Sociology, Anthropology, and Law, etc. in his book: Understanding Conflict and the Science of Peace. He also integrated the subject matter of Peace Science with Regional Science. There have been also numerous publications in the area of Arm Production and Nuclear proliferation. Different techniques of Game Theory have been applied to analyze the situation of competitive, and cooperative structure of decision making.

Our book series on Conflict Management Peace Economic and Development published by Emerald Publishing, UK addressed many of these topics in thirty volumes.

However, we need some new directions in the area of Peace Economics and Peace Science. Some of them are Big data, Artificial Intelligence, Data mining, Environmental Conflict and Global Warming, Conflict and Public Policy, Ethics and Corporate Social Responsibility, and Disaster Management such as Covid-19. The papers included in this volume are in that direction.

Manas Chatterji

Binghamton New York

Introduction

Partha Gangopadhyay and Madhumita Chatterji

The edited book seeks to improve our collective understanding of how to fight humanity’s persistent and tragic problems with conflicts, climate shocks and ruptured peace in a globalised world. With the collapse of the former USSR in the early 1990s, Francis Fukuyama prophesised ‘the end of history’, driven by free-market liberal democracy, which was meant to deliver:

• massive increases in productive efficiency in the global economy;

• unprecedented improvement in the solidarity between nations; and

• unprecedented economic development and prosperity for all nations.

In the early 1990s, after the collapse of USSR, the process of economic globalisation was supposed to increase productive efficiency, and produce greater solidarity between nations and promote economic development of all economies. Francis Fukuyama spoke about ‘the end of history’ and argues that free-market liberal democracy will be the lasting and ‘final form of human government’ to propel our collective prosperity and peace. This prediction is resonant with the Kantian concept of perpetual peace.

Ironically, within a span of three decades from ‘the end of history’, history has started a new and terribly ominous reincarnation: war cries of the rich and the powerful against globalism have drowned our collective voice for human security and harmony. Some political leaders have vowed to create a new world order. Neo-protectionism has raised its ugly heads in the form of tariff wars between the United States and China. National sentiments of mercantilism have driven out the cunning of reason to foster global cooperation to fight myriads of challenges to human security. Now Fukuyama looks suitably anxious about the future of our globe and, like every responsible citizen of our globe, ponders about its future. Fukuyama is reported to have stated: ‘Twenty-five years ago, I didn’t have a sense or a theory about how democracies can go backward. And I think they clearly can’. (https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/worldviews/wp/2017/02/09/the-man-who-declared-the-end-of-history-fears-for-democracys-future/).

Contrary to Fukuyama’s prophecies, however, three decades later, international tensions have not shown any downward trend. Since the creation of the World Trade Organisation, economic and financial crises have often revitalised state economic protections and nationalist sentiments of some political leaders want to return to a more political and mercantilist conception of economic policy. In Europe, it is widely held, Brexit has outright rejected globalisation as the EU failed to protect its population from predatory globalisation (https://www.theguardian.com/business/2016/jun/26/brexit-is-the-rejection-of-globalisation). The years of Brexit drama and continuing uncertainty have created enormous cracks and deadly fault-lines across nations within the European Union (EU). It is imperative to highlight that there has been push back against globalisation, or the ‘final form of human government’, all across the globe.

Yet, we are at a critical juncture of human history as our civilisation has been under serious threats from anthropogenic factors. Human security is in peril. Roughly speaking, human security can be best understood using a negative term called human insecurity. Human insecurity is our existential threats from violent conflict and poverty, humanitarian crises and epidemic diseases. We also tend to pot injustice and inequality in the narrow space of human insecurity. Broadly speaking, hence, human security is all about security of individuals and their communities, global humanity and harmony. Human security can be summarised in the following triad:

• human security is about absence of fear for individuals;

• human security is about freedom from want for individuals; and

• human security is about freedom to live in dignity, peace and harmony.

Hence, human security is radically different from the traditional mandate of security studies that have clear foci on military force, territorial control and sovereignty in exercising state power.

This edited book diligently explores the uncharted land of human security by riveting on some of the most serious challenges that human security faces in various parts of our globe due to intra-state conflict and terrorism, inter-state wars, predatory globalisation, failed development, environmental problems and man-made and natural disasters. By bringing together a diversity of researchers, the book will offer a comprehensive treatment of human security. This book will provide an original contribution and a further impetus to crafting well-grounded academic and policy responses to human security, or global problems that so urgently call forth ingenious solutions. Some of the relevant topics covered in the book will focus upon:

• Climate shocks.

• Terrorism.

• Conflicts.

• Poverty.

• Inequality.

• Inefficient governance.

This book is about our collective resilience to fight some of the above challenges to human security. It will explore our collective efforts to create a pathway from economic and social chaos to Kantian peace during a violent phase of globalisation. This violent phase is often termed as predatory globalisation. In other words, the volume will seek to understand how to shear off the predatory nature of globalisation for ensuring human security.

We are standing at the crossroads of human history: we live in a globalised world and our contemporary problems are global in nature. A widely publicised research work, undertaken at Oxford University, highlights that more than 1.6 billion people are living in multidimensional poverty around the world today. To overcome our collective problems, we need global cooperation on a scale unprecedented in human history.

This volume will seek to address some of these urgent challenges to human security – as for examples, continuing and deadly conflicts, over-population, climate change, disappearing bio-diversity and lack of development and progress for 1.6 billion people of our globe –peace and development will play a key role.

Without peace and development – it will be improbable, if not impossible, to achieve the levels of cooperation, trust, inclusiveness and social equity needed to create and implement solutions to global challenges.

From the ongoing research on development, peace and security, we have learnt the hard lesson: if we look at the economic impact of violent conflict on a global scale, the pecuniary costs – ignoring social and psychological costs – at least US$ 14.3 trillion. In other words, 13.4% of global GDP is wasted every year due only to conflicts and violence. This is what George Washington came to term as ‘the waste of war’ in 1788 and the book will help researchers and policymakers across the globe how to mitigate the ‘waste of war’.

An abiding theme of the volume will revolve around the question of managing conflicts and thereby achieving lasting peace. Wars and conflicts, in the opinion of European philosophers like Baron d’Holbach, are nothing but a ‘remnant of savage customs’. Yet our time is still marred – more often than not – by such savage customs as some of our work highlighted during the last five decades.

As early as in 1788, George Washington argued that it was time for agriculture and commerce ‘to supersede the waste of war and the rage of conquest’. Yet time and again, we see the following:

the wild rage of war has been supplanted by the calculating and rational belief that a brief momentary madness of war can smother many future wars. This belief provides a rational foundation for wars as a war for peace, like war on terror, as the globe witness the wars in the Balkans and the gulf, followed by the global rage triggered by 9/11. (Gangopadhyay & Elkanj, 2017)

The above sentiment is nothing new as in 1790 the new French Revolutionary State enunciated the ‘declaration of peace to the world’, which claimed to have ended the savage wars in Europe forever. The declaration of peace after the French revolution pivots upon ‘a single society, whose object is the peace and happiness of each and all of its members’. It took less than 2 years after the declaration of peace when Europe got dragged into a series of bloody wars that continued for 23 years. It ended with the final defeat of France in 1815.

In other words, the book will highlight, many violent conflicts have the lurking the hope of a perpetual peace at the end of ‘this very final conflict’, yet wars and conflicts smudge our human history with an unfailing regularity. Nation states would direct every possible political, social and economic resource towards the utter defeat of the enemy – one last time.

In one serious context on the frontier of research in human security, the jury is still out on whether development causes peace and security, or peace and security cause development. This book will touch upon a crucial theme of human security: development, peace and development are inter-dependent and we need a systemic understanding of development, peace and security. In this context, a key finding of the Institute for Economics and Peace is that ‘more peaceful societies are also more prosperous’.

Human security is an important subject for our globe, in particular South Asia, as it calls forth interactions among various fields of social change, such as:

• development;

• conflict resolution;

• human rights; and

• humanitarian assistance.

In a globalised world, threats become trans-national very quickly, and hence inter-state cooperation is mandatory to crush problems threatening human security. Written by researchers who are experts in the field of human security and with case studies from different regions (EU, North America, South America, South Pacific, and various parts of South Asia, Central Asia and East Asia, Africa and the Middle East) presented throughout, this book will create and drive the new multidimensional conception of human security, and explore its strengths and weaknesses. The book will also explore various strategies to enhance human security.