Ableism

, 2

Activism. See also Youth activism

, 193, 198

Activists

, 163

Adequate yearly progress (AYP)

, 50

Adolescents, young people become

, 40–42

Adult-dominated social movement spaces

, 78–79

Adultism

, 35–36

and ephebiphobia

, 52

structural inequality of

, 51

Advancement Project

, 50–51

Affirmative governmentality

, 52

Ageism

, 63

Agents provocateurs

, 51

Al Qaeda in Iraq (AQI)

, 135

Al-Askariya Mosque bombings

, 137

Al-Nahrain University

, 134

Albeit police presence

, 109–110

Altruism

, 40–41

American high school

, 43

Analytic approach

, 196

Anti-apartheid activism

, 12–13

Anti-Drug Abuse Act (1986)

, 48

Anti-protest narrative

, 2

Anti-Vietnam war movements

, 45

Anti-war movement

, 14

Antiwar activists

, 213–214

Apartheid in South Africa

, 13

Arab Spring 2.0

, 129

Arab Street

, 139

Asian/Pacific Islander Youth Promoting Advocacy and Leadership (AYPAL)

, 52

Assassinations of Iraqi academics

, 137–140

Authoritarianism

, 2, 194

Backfire

, 159–160

Backpack movement (2011)

, 103–104

Banking Bill

, 24–25

Benevolent superordinates

, 60

Biographical information

, 109

Black, Indigenous, and People of Color communities (BIPOC communities)

, 35–37

Black Americans

, 60

Black Consciousness Movement

, 16

Black Lives Matter (BLM)

, 3–4, 34, 81

Black Power

, 15–16

Black Theology movements

, 16

Black Youth Project 100 (BYP 100)

, 4, 63

Blogs

, 65–66

Board of Trustees

, 20–22, 25–26, 216–217, 221

British Anti-Apartheid Movement

, 23–24

Brown scare

, 193

Brussels Tribunal

, 138

California’s Proposition 21

, 52

Campus activism

, 2

Center for Civic Engagement (CCE)

, 87

Center for Peaceful Change (CPC)

, 213

Child savers

, 43–44

Chile’s national police force

, 105–106

Chilean education system

, 102

Chilean student movement

, 106–107

Chilean Winter

, 102–104

Chun Doo Hwan administration

, 195

Chun Doo Hwan regime

, 192

Chun Massacres Gwangju Citizens

, 198

Civic engagement

, 87

Civil disobedience

, 45

Civil Rights

day

, 88

movements

, 45

Climate Strikers

, 3–4

Collective memory

, 192–193

Commemoration

, 213–215, 226

memory and

, 5–6

Committee on Academic Environment

, 21

Communist Youth Organization (CYO)

, 225

Community partnerships

, 88

Community-based youth organizations

, 62

Comprehensive Anti-Apartheid Act

, 26

Compulsory schooling

, 43–44

Constructivist camps

, 136

Content analysis

, 196

Contention

, 203

Contentious politics datasets of events

, 106–107

Contentious student politics

, 103–104

Council of Movement for People and Democracy (CMPD)

, 203

Counter-insurgency

, 140–143

Counter-memory narratives

, 193

COVID-19 exposure

, 34

Criminal behavior

, 44

Criminalization

, 3–4

Criminals, young activists become

, 45–47

Cult of domesticity

, 39

Cultural Center

, 203

Cultural cleansing strategy

, 139

Cultural uniqueness

, 60

Daily Kent Stater

, 214–215

Day of Dialogue

, 88

De facto

, 59–60

De-baathification

, 140, 148

Deficit model

, 58, 60

and inequality

, 59–60

leaked online

, 64–65

Demand-amplification

, 103

Democracy

, 38–39

in Chile

, 106

movement

, 195

Democratic restoration

, 115–116

Description bias

, 107

Detroit Free Press

, 17

Developmental psychology

, 41–42

Dialectic of repression’

, 4

Dialectics of repression

, 104, 116

Digital activism

, 59

Digital media

, 59

Digital space

, 68–70, 72–73, 78–80

Digital technologies

, 64

Disarmament, demobilization and reintegration programs (DDR programs)

, 141

Disempowerment

, 3–4

Displacement

, 149–150

Disruption

, 110–112

Dissent

, 162–163

Divestment

, 18–19

Diyala University

, 135

Dred Scott decision

, 59–60

Drug abuse

, 47

Dualisms

, 40–41

Dynamics of Collective Protest

, 108

Early Twentieth Century, young people in

adolescents

, 40–42

containment

, 42–45

Earth Day

, 85, 88

East Lansing

, 12–13, 15–16

Educational apartheid

, 4, 102

Educational institutions in US

, 13

Encapuchado

, 117–120

Environmental activism

, 73

Ephebiphobia

, 3–4, 35, 37, 49

early twentieth century

, 40, 42, 45

late twentieth century

, 47–51

mid-twentieth century

, 45–47

nineteenth century

, 38–40

oath of Ephebes

, 53–54

persistent myth of youth (in) danger

, 51–53

Epidemics

, 36–37

“Escalated force” model

, 109–110

Ethno-sectarian re-organization

, 147–149

European Convention of Human Rights (ECHR)

, 164

European culture

, 41

Event type scenarios

, 113

External digital space

, 70

Externally disruptive strategies

, 110–112

Facebook pages

, 65–66

Factionalism

, 225–226

Fan activism

, 81

Free Speech Movement

, 13

Gang Violence and Juvenile Crime Prevention Act

, 49–50

General Motors (GM)

, 20

Generation gap

, 42–43

Global Justice Day

, 88

Google API

, 66–67

Grass-roots movement

, 157–158

Gun Free Schools Act (1994)

, 49–51

Gwangju

, 192

data and methods

, 194–196

findings

, 196–205

Incident

, 197–198

memory work for mobilization

, 192–194

Uprising

, 192–194, 196–198

Health, Physical Education, and Recreation (HPER)

, 214–215, 217

Heroic defense of universities

, 134

High school

, 42–43

Higher education

, 127–128, 137

Higher education institutions (HEIs)

, 134

Highly disruptive events

, 113–114

Historic Site Preservation Society

, 216

Hofstra Peace Fellows

, 86

Homophobia

, 2

Honeymoon period

, 110

Idealism

, 40–41

‘Illinois’ 1903 Child Labor Law

, 43

Immigrants

, 44

Imperial grand strategy

, 131

Implicit deficit model

, 59–60

Incident

, 200

“Incidente11”

, 113

Industrialization

, 39

Inequality

deficit models and

, 59–60

of education

, 102

Inertia

, 40–41

Injustice frame approach

, 161, 179

Instagram

, 64

Institute for Peace Studies (IPS)

, 94

Institutionalizing peace education (IPS)

, 94–95

and advocacy at Hofstra and beyond

, 94–96

Institutions behind peace fellows

, 86–88

Insurgencies

, 134–137

Interim Governing Council (IGC)

, 136

Internally disruptive tactics

, 110–112

Iraq

, 127, 130–132, 136

coalition responses to security challenges in

, 128

ethno-sectarian splintering

, 137

Iraqi higher education

, 137, 139

Iraqi responses to security dilemma

, 144–150

displacement

, 149–150

ethno-sectarian re-organization

, 147–149

politicization

, 145–147

protection measures

, 144–145

Japanese colonial rule

, 194

Jeonnammaeil

, 197

Juvenile Accountability Block Grant

, 49–50

Juvenile Court Act

, 43–44

Juvenile justice system

, 43–45

K-pop music fans

, 35

Kent Interhall Council

, 216

Kent Legal Defense Fund

, 222–223

Kent State University (KSU). See also Michigan State University (MSU)

, 161, 211–212, 226

administration

, 216–217

board of trustees

, 215

police

, 222

slow movement

, 212

story

, 214

students at

, 212

Kent Weekly

, 215

Korean Democracy Foundation (KDF)

, 195

democracy movement

, 195

Kyiv Sociological Institute (KIIS)

, 167–168

Kyiv’s Maidan Square

, 158

Lake Chad Basin

, 129

Latin American Social Observatory

, 107

Law Enforcement Assistance Act (LEAA)

, 45–46

“Law of Coercive Responsiveness” model

, 110–112

“Law-and-order” frame

, 105

Legalism in Chile

, 114–115

Legitimacy

, 160–161

Lichbach’s model

, 159

Likelihood of police presence

, 110

Living memorial

, 1

Long Island Alliance for Peaceful Alternatives (LIAPC)

, 86

Long Island Alliance to Prevent Nuclear War

, 86

Long-Range Development Plan

, 214–215

Looters

, 133

Looting

, 133–134

Macro-level studies

, 192–193

Madison Area Committee on Southern Africa (MACSA)

, 15–16

Maidan Square

, 166, 177

Maoist groups

, 224

March for Our Lives

, 3–4

Massacre (haksal)

, 200, 203–204

Maximum probability

, 113–114

May 4th

coalition

, 216–218, 220

memorial committee

, 226

movement

, 214

task force

, 215

“McGoff Off” campaign

, 17

Mechanization

, 39

Media

, 116

Mediation

, 65

additional measures

, 69–70

youth focus and

, 67–69

Memory

, 212–214, 226

and commemoration

, 5–6

work for mobilization

, 192, 194, 199, 202–205

Meso-level studies

, 192–193

Michigan State University (MSU). See also Kent State University (KSU)

, 12–13, 23–24

banking bill

, 24–25

black consciousness

, 16

board of trustees

, 20, 25–26

divestment

, 18–19

east lansing

, 15–16

interim presidency

, 13–14

myriad traumatic developments

, 13

office of legal affairs

, 21–22

SALC

, 14–15, 17–18, 26–27

Sullivan principles

, 19–20

Micromobilization

of provisional Irish Army

, 160–161

of social efforts

, 166

Mid-decade events in South Africa

, 16

Middle-class youth

, 40

Military Industrial Commission

, 141

Military-grade tools

, 45–46

Mixed method approach

, 107

Mobilization

, 192, 194, 199, 202–205

Modern adolescent

, 40–41

Modern youth

, 2

MoHE-I

, 141

Moodiness

, 40–41

Moral shock

, 199

Mosul University

, 147

Movement for Black Lives

, 34

Multi-method approach

, 158, 168

Multiple logistic regression analysis

, 108

Mustansiriya University

, 137

Native Americans

, 60

Natural disaster

, 49

“Negotiated management” approach

, 106

New Social Movements in Western Europe

, 108

Ninewa PRT

, 143

No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB)

, 50

Non-profit programs

, 52

Nondisruptive tactics

, 110–112

Nonviolent civil rights

, 45

Nonviolent social change

, 34

Oath of Ephebes

, 53–54

Observatorio Social de América Latina (OSAL). See Latin American Social Observatory

Occupy Wall street Movement

, 41–42

Offline activism, youth deficit model in

, 62–63

Offline protest actions

, 70

Ohio National Guard

, 211–212

#OKBoomer trend

, 41–42

Omnibus Crime Control and Safe Streets Act (1968)

, 45–46

On-campus programming

, 88

Online magazines

, 65–66

Oppressive force

, 35–36

Ordered logit regression statistical model

, 168–169

Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development countries (OECD countries)

, 102

Orphan trains

, 40

Outmoded deficit model

, 59

Ownership

, 194, 205–206

Paradox of repression

, 159–160

Parens patriae

, 44

Participatory politics

, 81

online

, 2

Peace Fellows program

, 86

assessments

, 91–94

curriculum

, 89–91

institutions behind peace fellows

, 86–88

IPS and advocacy at Hofstra

, 94–96

Penguin Revolution

, 103–104

People’s Movement Coalition for Democracy and Reunification (PMCMR)

, 203

People’s uprising (minjung hangjaeng)

, 203–204

Piñera’s right-wing government

, 112–113

Pinguino movement

, 115–116

Police brutality

, 105–106

Police repression

, 109–110, 112–114

Police violence

, 34, 117

Policing

capital

, 103

of education-related protests

, 105

tactics

, 109–110

Political jiu-jitsu effect

, 159–160

Political opportunities

, 103

Political power

, 104–105

Political system

, 194

Political violence

, 158, 163–164, 178

expectations

, 158

support for

, 164

Politicization

, 145–147

Post-2003 Iraq

, 128

assassinations of Iraqi academics

, 137–140

counter-insurgency and stabilization

, 140–143

immediate post-invasion environment

, 133–134

insecurity and violence

, 131–143

insurgencies

, 134–137

Iraqi responses to security dilemma

, 144–150

theoretical considerations

, 128–130

Post-2003 violence

, 148

Post-Soviet world

, 159

Post-war violence

, 5

Poverty

, 2

Power, normative forms of

, 3

Pre-2003 Iraqi higher education

, 128, 130–131

Pre-emptive strike

, 131

Pre-tested coding sheet

, 108

Precocity

, 40–41

Primordialist camps

, 136

Private educational institutions

, 102

“Pro-choice” digital content

, 66

“Pro-life” digital content

, 66

Process-tracing methodology

, 169

Prosumption

, 64

Protecting education from attack

, 129–130

Protection measures

, 144–145

Protesters

, 163

Protests

, 162–163

control and repression

, 104

cycle

, 192

management model

, 109–110

repression of

, 104–107

violence triggers police repression

, 114

Provincial Reconstruction Teams (PRTs)

, 143

Purposive non-probabilistic sampling

, 109

Qualitative methodology

, 169

Quantitative database

, 109

Racism

, 2, 34–35

Recapitulation theory

, 41

Record-Courier

, 215

Regression models

, 107

Reinterpretation

, 199

Religious enthusiasm

, 40–41

Remembrance

, 193

Repression

, 35, 104, 158–160, 163

initial morphology of state force action during student protests

, 109–114

interview fragments about use of violence

, 119

methods

, 107–109

of protest

, 104–107

protest control and

, 104

repression-dissent nexus in Ukraine, Winter

, 164–168

responses to

, 4–5

scenarios of probability of protestor-police confrontation

, 114

and student protests in Chile unpacked

, 114–121

Resistance

, 162–163

Resistance for democracy (minjuhwa hangjaeng)

, 203–204

Revolution

, 162–163

Revolutionaries

, 163

Revolutionary Student Brigade (RSB)

, 224

RSB-led radical faction

, 224–225

Right-wing government

, 108

Righteous action for democracy (Ueguh)

, 203–204

Rockwell Hall

, 216–217

Safe and Drug Free Schools and Community Act (SDFSCA)

, 48

Salience

, 194

Samooborona units

, 166

School resource officers (SROs)

, 50–51

Secondary student movement organizations

, 109

“Secondary” tactic

, 117

Sectarian violence

, 136–137

Security forces

, 120–121

Selection bias

, 107

Self-directed digital engagement

, 81

Semi-dependence

, 38

Sexism

, 2

Shock

, 177, 197

Social anger

, 177

Social control

, 117–118

Social dissent

, 159–162

Social justice

, 86–87

Social learning

, 103

Social mobilization

, 160–161

Social movement organizations (SMOs)

, 58

SMO-run digital spaces

, 74

Social movements

, 3–4, 34, 37, 78–79

Social revolution

, 162

Social shock

, 177

Socialization

, 44–45

South Carolina State College (SCSC)

, 46

South Jolla Province

, 195

South Korea

, 192, 194–195

South Korean collective memory

, 6

Southern Africa Liberation Committee (SALC)

, 3, 12–15, 17–20, 26–27

Space Planning Council

, 214–215

Stabilization

, 140–143

Standing Rock

, 3–4

State forces

, 104

State repression

, 159, 162–163

State violence interpretation

, 172–176

Statistical methods

, 107, 168–169

Stop War Working Group

, 86–87

Strategic calculus

, 120–121

Structural inequality of adultism

, 51

Structural injustices

, 2

Student activism

, 1–2, 12–13, 88

Student activists

, 214

Student mobilizations in Chile

, 117

Student movements

, 3–4, 115, 120–121

Student protests in Chile

, 109–114

unpacked

, 114–121

Student tactics

, 110–112

Student Teacher Education Program (STEP)

, 15

Students Rise Up (SRU)

, 53

Students’ legitimate demands

, 118

Subcultures of memory

, 193

Sullivan Principles

, 19–20, 25

Sunrise Movement

, 4, 63, 73

Support for political violence

, 164

Task Force

, 213–214

Teenager

, 37, 42

Teens4Equality

, 34–35

Tent City

, 212, 218–220, 223

establishment

, 219

removal of

, 222

residents

, 219

Threat approach

, 104–105

Tiananmen Square protests

, 206

Tikrit University

, 143

TikTok

, 64, 81

Time magazine

, 38

Titushki

, 164

Transphobia

, 2

Twitter

, 34–35

Ukrainian revolution

, 157–160, 162

data analysis

, 171–176

interview data

, 176–178

methodology

, 168–171

political violence

, 163–164

repression-dissent nexus in Ukraine, Winter

, 164–168

revolution

, 162–163

revolutionaries, activists, and protesters

, 163

sources of data

, 170–171

state repression and social dissent

, 159–162

support for political violence

, 164

Uniondale Community Land Trust (UCLT)

, 87–88

United Faculty Professional Association (UFPA)

, 216–217

United States National Guard

, 161

University of Baghdad (UoB)

, 130–131

University of Basra

, 134

University of Mosul

, 142

University of Technology (UoT)

, 133–134, 146–147

University student movement organizations

, 109

UoB-Abu Ghraib campus

, 141

Urban disorder

, 45–46

URLs

, 66

US Cultural Center

, 200

US Zero Hour

, 73

Valence

, 194

Value-based method

, 90

Vietnam War

, 12–13, 46–47

Violence

, 114, 117, 157–158

interview fragments about use of

, 119

Vulgar language

, 44

War on Drugs becomes War on Kids

, 47–51

Washington Star

, 17

Wealthier classes

, 39–40

Weapons of mass destruction (WMD)

, 131, 141

Web-accessible spaces

data and methods

, 65–70

deficit models and inequality

, 59–60

findings

, 70–78

youth deficit model

, 60–65

youth focus and mediation

, 67–69

Web-addressable spaces

, 65–66

Weekly Standard

, 49

White men

, 41

White-owned businesses

, 46

WUNC

, 117

Young activists become criminals

, 45–47

Young people

adolescents

, 40–42

cultural movement for

, 36–37

demonization of

, 37

enter containment

, 42–45

middle-class projects

, 38–40

social construction of

, 35

Youth

, 2–3

digital technologies play in youth political engagement

, 64

in mid-nineteenth century

, 40

movements

, 3–4

political activism

, 4

youth-organized campaigns

, 81

youthful behaviors

, 44

Youth activism

, 2

and questions of citizenship

, 53–54

Youth Association for Democratic Movement

, 200

Youth deficit model. See also Deficit model

, 58, 60, 65, 79

deficit model leaked online

, 64–65

of engagement

, 4

evidence against

, 61–62

in offline activism

, 62–63

YouTube videos

, 65–66

“Yushin” system

, 194

Zero Hour

, 4

Zimbabwe War of Liberation

, 12–13