Exploring child marriage in Yemen: a critical analysis of an Arab media corpus

Abstract

Purpose

This study adopts a qualitative approach to a critical media analysis of the multifaceted aspects of child marriage in the Yemeni context as an example of the broader Arab context. It seeks to provide a deeper understanding of the current situation, underlying causes and consequences of child marriage, as well as efforts to curb the practice.

Design/methodology/approach

This study utilizes a thematic analysis approach, examining various textual and multimodal sources on child marriage. A corpus of Arab media, including news and opinion articles, online discussions and public comments, was compiled and analyzed. Additionally, sentiment analysis techniques were employed to examine a YouTube report about Nujood Ali, a victim of child marriage in Yemen, to gauge the emotional tone and attitudes of viewers towards the media coverage and the practice itself.

Findings

This study identifies prevalent themes, narratives and perspectives related to child marriage in Yemen, highlighting the diverse journalism genres addressing the issue. The thematic analysis of the media corpus reveals several themes that align with findings from other studies, particularly those discussing the practice, its causes and its prevalence. The sentiment analysis of a YouTube report on Nujood Ali reveals significant insights into the public’s emotional response and attitude towards child marriage.

Research limitations/implications

This study is limited to the content available in the compiled corpus and the specific methodologies employed, including thematic and sentiment analysis. These limitations might influence the generalizability of the findings.

Originality/value

This study is distinctive in its comprehensive and multidisciplinary approach to examining child marriage in Yemen and the broader Arab context. It employs a selection of digital humanities software to attempt a systematic, critical media analysis on child marriage in Yemen. Thematic analysis has uncovered unique insights, such as the inadvertent consequences of legislation intended to protect children, which have instead exacerbated the problem. In addition, the media has highlighted the negative role played by some religious scholars in Yemeni Parliament. These scholars have used their political power and immunity to obstruct efforts to end the practice, either directly or by mobilizing their supporters. A sentiment analysis of YouTube comments clearly indicates that the practice of child marriage is not widely accepted within the Yemeni community, despite some perceptions to the contrary.

Citation

Mohammed, T.A.S. (2024), "Exploring child marriage in Yemen: a critical analysis of an Arab media corpus", Qualitative Research Journal, Vol. ahead-of-print No. ahead-of-print. https://doi.org/10.1108/QRJ-02-2024-0036

Introduction

Child marriage is a plight in a considerable number of countries around the globe. It is not confined to Arab countries, but exists in diverse religious, cultural and socioeconomic contexts globally. In the Arab world, child marriages have been reported in Sudan, Iraq, Syria, Egypt, Saudi Arabia and Yemen, especially in rural areas (Mikhail, 2002; Mourtada et al., 2017; Sabbe et al., 2013). Despite official efforts to curb the practice, child marriage remains prevalent in Yemen and many other Muslim-majority countries (Khalife, 2011). The persistence of child marriage and the victimization of children have attracted the attention of national and international organizations and media outlets that have embarked on a series of campaigns of activism to defend the rights of children.

Arab media in its various forms play a significant role in combating child marriage and violations against human rights in general (El Halabi, 2017). Media outlets have taken the initiative to raise awareness and report on various incidents of abuse, repression and discrimination, exposing the perpetrators of these crimes. Arab media outlets have also conducted investigative reports about violations and serve as platforms for the victims to share their stories and amplify their voices, thereby enabling them to gain the empathy and support of the wider public. Numerous studies have examined child marriage in various countries (e.g. Johansson, 2015; Psaki et al., 2021). There is also a dearth of studies that conduct thematic analyses of the media coverage on the issue in the Yemeni context, which presents unique economic, cultural, religious and security circumstances. However, there appears to be a significant gap in the literature concerning the major factors that perpetuate child marriage in Yemen. While some studies have touched upon certain socio-economic contributing elements, until now no study has specifically explored the role of media in highlighting both the positive and negative influences of religious figures and politicians on the practice of child marriage. This gap in literature suggests a need for a thorough investigation of the interplay between media, religious advocacy and activism in shaping the discourse and practices surrounding child marriage in Yemen. In line with the above, this study examines how Arab media has tackled the issue of child marriage in Yemen, and the pivotal role mediascapes play in shaping socio-political and religious responses to this challenge. In particular, this study explores the media representation of child marriage in Arabic, given that the majority of media coverage on this issue is predominantly available in Arabic, with significantly less coverage in English. This study will attempt to answer the following questions:

• (1)

  What are the major themes in the Arab media’s coverage on child marriage?

• (2)

  How does the media portray religion and religious opinions in its coverage of child marriage?

• (3)

  What are the sentiments of audiences towards media reports on victims of child marriage?

Literature review

The existing literature extensively explores empirical and theoretical aspects of child marriage across various countries. Numerous studies have focused on specific regions; for instance, Johansson (2015) examined child marriage in Niger and Chad, highlighting their exceptionally high rates. Mahato (2016) investigated the practice in Nepal. Research in Indonesia also contributes to this discourse (Marshan et al., 2013). These studies collectively identify several key drivers of child marriage, including religious, traditional and cultural factors, gender inequality, poverty, perceptions of familial honor, protection motives and educational disparities. The findings of these studies have shown that the practice is particularly prevalent in rural, impoverished and marginalized communities. Moreover, the causes of child marriage have been the subject of many studies. For instance, Psaki et al. (2021) conducted a comprehensive literature review to develop a conceptual framework identifying the primary causes of child marriage. Their framework, informed by case studies from countries like Bangladesh, Malawi and Niger, outlines five major factors: entrenched social norms, poverty, limited personal agency, lack of opportunities and concerns over pregnancy or fear of pregnancy. Granata (2015) expanded on this analysis, exploring the global implications of early marriage and its consequences. The study identified economic, social and cultural factors as fundamental contributors to this practice. Additionally, it emphasized the severe outcomes of child marriage, such as health risks, the danger of early and potentially life-threatening pregnancies, exposure to violence and restricted access to education, themes also echoed in Ahmed’s (2015) study in the Bangladeshi context (Ahmed, 2015).

The scholarly exploration of the impact of child marriage on females has attracted considerable attention. The correlation between child marriage in Zimbabwe and academic achievement has been explored in a recent study (Bengesai et al., 2021). Utilizing secondary data from the 2015 Zimbabwe Demographic and Health Survey, the study concluded that the prevalence of marriage within the 15–22 age bracket significantly hampers the completion of secondary education for many girls. In a broader context, Wodon et al. (2017) examined the detrimental effects of child marriage and its associated economic burdens. The study, encompassing data from 15 countries primarily in Africa (including Egypt, Nigeria, Congo, Uganda and Zambia), identified five critical areas of impact: fertility and population growth; health, nutrition and exposure to violence; educational attainment and learning; labor force participation and earnings; and civic participation, decision-making and investments.

Media has played a vital role in combating child marriage and educating people about its consequences. Research has shown the significant impact of covering socio-cultural issues related to child marriages through interviews, news reports, editorials, features and other kinds of media content (Okiyi et al., 2020). The role of mass media in curbing child marriage in many countries, such as Nigeria and Uganda, has also been explored (Nnenna, 2023; Worugji, 2018). Nnenna’s study recommended that media, due to its persuasive nature, should be employed on a mass scale to educate people about the consequences of child marriage and to educate women about their rights. Similarly, a study reporting on the Breakthrough’s campaign against early marriage in two states in India, namely Jharkhand and Bihar, shows that media campaigns effectively influence attitudes and initiate actions to reduce early child marriage (Raghunathan et al., 2021). In the Arab context, a recent study explored the role Sayidaty magazine played in stopping the tradition of marrying minors in the Arab world (Alqahtani and Alqahtani, 2022). Sayidaty launched a campaign on March 1, 2010, under the slogan “No Marriage for Minors” to raise awareness about the psychological and physical risks of child marriage. This study concluded that propaganda plays a central role in changing the public’s perceptions of sensitive issues such as child marriage.

Several studies in the literature appear to focus primarily on the role of media as a tool for education and awareness regarding child marriage. However, no study to date has comprehensively and critically examined the coverage of Arab media outlets on child marriage, while also leveraging the capabilities of corpus linguistics and digital humanities software for processing large datasets.

Conceptual and analytical framework

The theoretical and conceptual framework of this study is based on critical media analysis, which can be defined as an interdisciplinary approach that aims to explore media content including news articles and reports, films, television programs and advertisements, images, and the like, through a critical lens. According to Berger (2005, p. 25), critical media analysis is “a research technique that is based on measuring the amount of something (violence, negative portrayals of women, or whatever) in a representative sampling of some mass-mediated popular form of art”. It also means “thinking critically about the impact of the media on the distribution of power in society” (Stocchetti and Kukkonen, 2011, p. 13). Media content has been widely investigated using various approaches including sociological and positivistic approaches (Croteau and Hoynes, 2017). In particular, critical approaches to media analysis have a lot in common with critical discourse analysis (CDA). In a sense, critical media studies are viewed as precursors of CDA (Van Dijk, 2015). The interdisciplinarity of critical media analysis lies in the fact that it also draws on various theoretical and conceptual approaches, including feminism (Dines et al., 2018; Walby et al., 1983), cultural studies (Kellner, 2011), critical theory (Meyers, 2004), postcolonialism (Shome, 2016) and religious studies (Arthur, 1993), among others.

Critical media analysis explores how media can reinforce or challenge societal norms, ideologies and power structures. It is not only concerned with a macro-analysis of media texts, i.e. the cultural and socio-political contexts in which texts are contextualized, but also a micro-analysis that focuses mainly on the immediate text, its language, imagery, framing and discourse structures. Apart from analysis of media content and its dominant themes, critical media analysis explores the dominant norms and discursive patterns perpetuated by media institutions.

Some critical media analysts view media as a tool of hegemony (Block, 2013; Çoban, 2018; Olubunmi, 2015). Even though some media may not deliberately aim to manipulate the audience, they are active agents in the production and reproduction of dominant ideology and participate in the reassertion and legitimation of a dominant view of the world. Hence, critical media studies question the view that media objectively reflect reality. They view media as being very powerful and manipulative, and its messages shaped by political, religious and economic forces.

In short, critical media analysis examines media content by taking into consideration the historical, cultural and social context in which the text/discourse is produced. It examines media content, production techniques, biases and intended messages from a critical and often interdisciplinary perspective.

Data and methods

This study utilized a corpus-assisted thematic analysis of Arabic media coverage on child marriage in Yemen. This data collection technique was used to determine the most frequent words, recurrent themes, or concepts within qualitative data to shed light on the practice of child marriage in Yemen. The corpus-assisted thematic analysis of these media reports enabled systematic inferences to be made about the messages within the texts. While a corpus analysis was necessary to identify and quantify the most frequent words, collocations, themes, patterns and relations within textual data, a qualitative analysis was also necessary to enable a more interpretive level of analysis that may not be achievable through quantitative analysis alone. In essence, this mixed method empowers researchers to comprehend the social reality and context in a subjective yet scientific manner (Roller and Lavrakas, 2015; Zhang and Wildemuth, 2009).

Qualitative thematic analysis in this study was conducted by using computer-assisted data analysis software, namely ATLAS.ti. and Voyant Tools. Coupled with corpus software, these programs enabled the organization, management and codifcation of media reports/texts in a more efficient manner. A detailed description of the procedures used in this study is given below:

• (1)

  The corpus was compiled using the automated corpus-building tool provided by Sketch Engine. This tool facilitates the identification, downloading and processing of relevant texts from the internet to construct a coherent corpus. To compile the Arabic corpus focusing on child marriage in Yemen, three search terms were employed: al-qāṣirāt (minors or underage girls), zawāj (marriage) and al-Yaman (Yemen). These search terms were intentionally selected to be as broad as possible to avoid biasing the search towards specific sub-themes or narratives. Sketch Engine collaborates with the Bing search engine to locate pertinent web pages, enabling the downloading of these sources. The platform also allows for the filtration of data, presenting a list of initial results from which users can manually select or deselect based on relevance. The scope of the corpus was deliberately narrowed to include only Arabic online newspapers and television reports, while excluding editorials and blogs. This was done to maintain a focus on formal media output and ensure a high standard of reliability and formality in the language used. Table 1 presents an overview of the corpus statistics.

The corpus of the data was compiled from online sources, as Figure 1 shows:

• (2)

  The frequency of individual words and phrases within the corpus was initially employed as the primary unit of analysis, forming the basis for the initial codes used in this study. To ensure a systematic thematic analysis and to avoid being inundated by less significant terms, a cut-off point was implemented by selecting the top 100 words. This method allowed for the concentration on the most impactful terms, thereby refining the focus of analysis.

• (3)

  The entire corpus was subsequently imported into ATLAS.ti for the purpose of coding. Codes were cross-referenced with supporting data and were grouped into thematic categories. To facilitate coding, Sketch Engine tools such as wordlist, concordance lines and collocations were used, as well as the search tools in ATLAS.ti., as shown in the visualization in Figure 2.

• (4)

  Social media content in the form of a YouTube report on Nujood Ali, a victim of child marriage in Yemen, underwent transcription, followed by the coding of viewer comments. Comments were filtered using the Data Analyst Module in ChatGPT4 and subsequently manually reviewed to ensure accuracy. The majority of the comments are in Arabic, with very few comments in English. All Arabic comments were exported to ATLAS.ti and the AI-coding feature was used to collate the data. The codes were filtered, and data cleaned to make sure that irrelevant codes or comments were excluded. By irrelevant comments or codes, we refer to those that do not contribute to the understanding of the thematic focus, such as off-topic remarks, repetitive content, or personal attacks that do not provide any substantive insights related to child marriage. These were excluded to maintain the analytical clarity and relevance of the findings. Utilizing the AI-coding feature within ATLAS.ti enabled not only the categorization of comments based on sentiment (positive, negative or neutral), but also provided a comprehensive analysis of their underlying attitudes and expressions of appreciation.

• (5)

  The collected data was analyzed to identify patterns and draw conclusions in response to the research questions.

Analysis

Research question 1 examined the major themes in the Arab media’s coverage on child marriage in Yemen. The coding process showed that two dominant themes are featured in the entire corpus, namely, child marriage as a practice and the intersection of religion, culture and child marriage. Table 2 presents the codes and the unified themes.

Child marriage as a practice

The scale of the problem, the areas where the practice thrives, and its causes and risks are all covered by media reporting. The violation of child rights and the attempts of some parties to legalize the practice of child marriage have also been foregrounded in the coverage. Moreover, the victims of child marriage have received particular attention from media outlets. Figure 3 shows this major theme and its various codes.

Scale of the practice

The scale of child marriage in the Arab world in general and in Yemen in particular is high. Searching for the keyword phrase “child marriage” in the corpus rendered around 300 hits. After additional filtration, it was found that the phrase was repeated 122 times. To systematically attempt a thematic analysis of the scale of child marriage in Yemen, the concordance lines of some words such as muhāfadah “province”, qariya “village” qurā “villages” (plural), mudun “cities”, al-rīf “countryside”, aryāf “countryside” (plural), and their lemmas were examined, as shown in Table 3.

The corpus shows that clear statistics and even approximations regarding the victims of child marriage and its current prevalence in the various provinces of Yemen are not available. What is available is an outdated United Nations statistic cited by Human Rights Watch (HRW). The HRW report shows that 52% of girls in Yemen get married before the age of eighteen. According to the same report, 14% of married Yemeni girls are married before the age of fifteen. The marriage of girls under the age of 18 increased nearly threefold between 2017 and 2018.

Moreover, the corpus indicates that the phenomenon is more widespread in the countryside and villages as is the case in other Arab countries. Searching the corpus for the word muhāfadah, “province,” to locate the areas in which child marriage is more prevalent rendered 30 hits (255.31 hits per million tokens). The corpus revealed that Ibb has the highest rate of child marriage, followed by Hajjah, Hodeidah and Al-Mahwit Governorates. Unfortunately, experts confirm that child marriage is also prevalent in some restricted tribal areas, in provinces such as Saada in the north of Yemen. Legal experts and journalists are not allowed to visit these areas to investigate the scale of the problem.

Child marriage as a violation of child rights

Many media reports describe child marriage as anti-sharīʿa, and in violation of various laws and constitutions, as demonstrated by the use of related tokens/terms, as shown in Table 4.

For example, the concordance analysis of the term intihāk, “breach,” is given in Figure 4.

As the concordance analysis revealed, media reports unanimously affirm child marriage as an indisputable infringement upon the rights of children, profoundly affecting their physical and psychological wellbeing. This harmful practice robs them of their childhood and educational opportunities, ensnaring them in a cycle of impoverishment with severely restricted prospects. It denies them the fundamental right to life and coerces them into shouldering burdens beyond their capacity. Regrettably, many of these young brides are subjected to violence, often due to their lack of knowledge regarding how to navigate marital relationships, raise children and manage the responsibilities of an entire household. Additionally, many are forced to forsake their education, either due to early pregnancies or the sudden imposition of domestic and marital responsibilities upon their lives.

Causes

The corpus shows that the media devoted part of its coverage to the causes of child marriage. The corpus abounds with cause-related words/tokens, as shown in Table 5.

Navigating the above key words in their context shows that many causes for child marriage in Yemen, including ignorance, poverty, and misguided cultural traditions and customs, were identified in the corpus. The rampant spread of this phenomenon could also be attributed to illiteracy, as child marriage is prevalent in provinces with high illiteracy rates. Displacement and families' financial needs, exacerbated by the ongoing war, have also contributed to its increase. Additionally, there is a prevalent cultural norm in Yemen that advocates marrying young girls for their protection under complex security and economic conditions. Other factors include the fear of spinsterhood, poverty, unemployment, domestic violence and a misunderstanding of Islamic law.

Risks

A thematic analysis of the media reports in the corpus highlighted numerous risks associated with child marriage. To trace these risks, the concordance lines of some words/tokens were analyzed, as shown in Table 6.

Girls who marry at an early age face significant health risks, including stunted body growth, an inability to bear the burdens of pregnancy and childbirth, and an increased risk of maternal mortality. Additionally, the infant mortality rate is higher among the children of young mothers, primarily due to a lack of knowledge and awareness regarding childcare and nutrition. The presence of social and psychological risks is also evident in the corpus, as adolescent girls may struggle to express their opinions confidently in marital matters and may be influenced by family and relatives in personal life decisions. Early marriage also contributes to higher rates of poverty, illiteracy and poor health outcomes for both the girls and their future children. Additionally, child marriage perpetuates harmful gender norms and reinforces societal structures that limit women’s autonomy and agency.

Combating the practice

Combating child marriage at the religious, political and social levels has been extensively covered by the media. To examine the efforts of various parties in combating the practice, the concordance lines of specific words were examined. Words such as munẓamāt, “organizations”, were mentioned in the corpus 37 times (314.88 per million tokens), muḥārabah, “combating”, was repeated in 3 contexts (25.53 per million tokens) and san qawānīn, “enact laws”, was repeated 5 times (42.55 per million tokens). The corpus indicates that multiple voices have called for the eradication of child marriage in Yemen. Many organizations, parliamentarians, human rights activists and politicians have joined the call for legislation in a bid to put an end to the suffering of Yemeni girls forced into early marriage. They have called on the government to establish a legal marriage age of eighteen years, in addition to enacting laws that penalize those who force girls into early marriage. The corpus reveals that these efforts culminated in an agreement to set the marriage age at 18 years, which was among the outcomes of the 2014 National Dialog.

Victims

The corpus includes many reports about the victims of child marriage in Yemen. The analysis revealed a recurring focus on individual victims’ stories, with prominent cases like Nujood (53 references), Rawan (28 references), Reem (26 references) and Aisha (mentioned alongside others) dominating the coverage. Nujood, a victim of child marriage in Yemen, was married off at the age of eight to a man three times her age. She endured extensive abuse and hardship before courageously seeking a divorce at the age of ten, becoming the youngest divorcee in Yemen’s history. Nujood’s case shed light on the widespread issue of child marriage in Yemen and sparked international outrage, prompting calls for stricter laws and greater protection for young girls. Her resilience and determination serve as an inspiration to many others trapped in similar situations. The corpus acknowledges the emergence of fabricated narratives, such as the case of Nada Al-Ahdel, which briefly gained traction before being exposed as false.

Religion, culture and child marriage

Research question 2 examined how the media has portrayed religion and religious opinions in its coverage of child marriage. Religion is strongly prevalent in the media coverage on child marriage in Yemen, as shown in the word cloud visualization in Figure 5.

The media has not only tackled the socio-cultural factors that contribute to child marriage but has also highlighted the role of certain religious beliefs and practices in the perpetuation of the practice. The coding of the corpus shows a number of common sub-themes as follows: the fatāwā, “legal rulings” (sing. fatwā) and prevailing opinions on child marriage; the exploitation and misinterpretation of religious fatāwā and texts, the legalization of the practise; and some Islamists' opposition to a draft law on the minimum marriage age in Yemeni parliament. These sub-themes in the corpus are shown in Figure 6.

To attempt a systematic analysis of the role of religion and sharīʿa interpretations on child marriage, several words and their collocations were traced and concordance lines of them were created and analyzed in their contexts. Some of these key terms and their frequencies are given in Table 7.

Sharīʿa opinion

Fatāwā and sharīʿa opinions on child marriage have received a lot of attention in the media coverage. The coverage has explored the long-standing debate among scholars, the complications of fatāwā rulings, the use and abuse of sharīʿa texts to legalize the practice, as well as moderate and extremist views on child marriage.

The media have quoted scholars who refuted the false claim that Islam is responsible for the practice of child marriage. These scholars cite the Qur’an, which clearly states: “And test the orphans [in their abilities] until they reach marriageable age. Then if you perceive in them sound judgment, release their property to them” (Qur’an 4:6). This verse, scholars argue, implicitly advocates for marriage at an age when individuals have attained maturity, despite its revelation during an era when child marriage was commonplace. Furthermore, Prophetic Sunnah includes numerous texts aimed at limiting such marriages. For instance, An-Nasa’i’s narration from Ibn Abbas quotes Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) as saying, “The orphan girl should be consulted about her marriage, and her silence indicates her permission.” This underscores the necessity for a girl’s consent, implicitly suggesting that she should be of an age where she can make informed decisions and handle the responsibilities of marriage.

The corpus shows that some Muslim scholars who endorse this kind of marriage often rely on misinterpretations of specific texts. A commonly cited example is the statement of Aisha, wife of Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him), regarding her marriage at a young age. It is crucial to contextualize this within the broader historical practice of child marriage, which was not exclusive to the Quraysh tribe or Islamic culture at the time. Present-day instances of child marriage in some regions, where girls are perceived to mature rapidly, also underscore the influence of cultural over religious factors.

The media has asserted that even though there are cases of child marriage in Arab countries, which are the homeland of Islam and its primary cultural center, statistics show that the practice is not generally prevalent to a worrying degree in these countries. It is therefore necessary to distinguish between cultural traditions and customs and religious practices and mandates. There is no evidence from the Sunnah that shows the Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) explicitly endorsed child marriage. In addition, Ali’s marriage to Prophet Muhammad’s daughter Fatimah occurred when she was eighteen years old. These are often cited as reasons why proponents of child marriage find it difficult to justify the practice Islamically.

The enlightened role of some Islamic scholars who openly oppose child marriage in the Arab world is evident in the media corpus. In a progressive move, a group of Yemeni Muslim scholars issued a fatwā condemning child marriage and emphasizing the importance of education for girls. They highlighted that Islam promotes the wellbeing and empowerment of women, urging communities to prioritize their education and development over early marriages.

Exploitation and misinterpretation of fatāwā

Many reports in the corpus refer to a statement released by the Global Fatwa Index (GFI), associated with the Egyptian Fatwa House. The GFI reports that terrorist organizations utilize fatāwā as a source of legitimacy, with approximately 25% of these fatāwā being employed for such purposes. Furthermore, the GFI notes that around 90% of these endorse child marriage, and 13% of total global fatāwā are specifically dedicated to this issue. These organizations often seek fatāwā that endorse child marriages, catering to their supressed desires, primarily focusing on justifying sexual relationships with minors. The GFI points out that proponents of child marriage selectively cite and interpret religious texts, overlooking the dynamic nature of fatāwā which should adapt to changes in time, place, circumstances and customs. The corpus highlights that a notable percentage of the fatāwā are issued by Salafi groups, including Hizb ut-Tahrir, Islamic State of Iraq and Syria (ISIS) and Al-Qaeda, and are devoted to the justification of the marriage of minors. In other words, 90% of their judgments endorse child marriage and they often use terms such as halāl, “permissible”, ja’iz, “allowable” and mubah, “permissible”. Al-Qaeda has also been accused of sexually exploiting children under the pretext of marriage. The media has reported on the coercion of around 100 Yemeni girls, some as young as 13, into marrying al-Qaeda’s fighters.

Legalization of the practice

Apart from the many attempts to legalize child marriage through fatāwā by some scholars and fundamentalists, alignment and solidarity against those laws that have tried to curb the practice have unfortunately thwarted sincere efforts to put an end to the practice. In a traditional, conservative Muslim society such as Yemen, Islamist political parties have sometimes mobilized their supporters to protest against laws that seek to ban child marriage, claiming that it is a fundamental aspect of their religious and cultural identity. These parties argue that such laws infringe upon their freedom of religion and are an attempt to impose Western values on conservative Yemeni society. The power these parties and Muslim scholars enjoy, especially in their capacities as members of Yemeni Parliament, allows them to influence legislation and policies, making it difficult for advocates of ending child marriage to achieve significant legal reforms. Unfortunately, the children who are victims of this practice have found themselves in a position where the legislators, who are supposed to protect them, are instead perpetuating the harmful practice of child marriage. However, at the same time the media has highlighted the multiple voices of Islamic scholars and parliamentarians who consider the practice as abominable and objectionable, emphasizing the need for change.

Debates on minimum age of marriage

The efforts of many organizations, activists, scholars and parliamentarians who have exerted their utmost efforts to curb child marriage in Yemen are discernible in the corpus. Sin, meaning “age,” appears 35 times in the corpus. It is often discussed in the context of legal age, with references to specific ages such as 18 years (the legal age for marriage in many contexts) and underage marriages (e.g. below 15 or 18 years). Moreover, it is repeatedly associated with discussions about the legal and societal implications of setting or not setting a minimum marriage age, reflecting concerns about the appropriateness and consequences of marrying at a young age. In 2009, Yemeni Parliament debated a draft law that set the minimum age for girls' marriage at 18 years. The majority of members voted in favor of lowering the minimum age for marriage to 17 years instead of 18. Even this incomplete legislation did not make its way to approval. In March 2010, the draft law for this vote was referred to the legislative committee of the Yemeni Parliament. Disappointingly, the committee issued a 14-page document rejecting the specification of a minimum marriage age and considered it in conflict with the Qur’an, Sunnah, the constitution and the interests of children. Accordingly, the draft law was rejected during that parliamentary session. Shortly after this attempt, several religious figures and preachers issued a fatwā stating that setting a minimum age for marriage contradicts sharīʿa. In addition to his opposition to any laws limiting child marriage in Parliament, representative Sheikh Mohammed al-Hazmi stated in an article published in the Islah party’s newspapers during the same period: “Setting the age of marriage is preventing what God allowed by placing limits on it.” This is an explicit statement that any attempt to specify the age of marriage is not acceptable Islamically. However, his statement was challenged by his party colleague and parliamentarian Shauqi al-Qadi who expressed in a March 2010 article in the state newspaper 26 September that the marriage of minors is condemnable and must be prohibited, and those engaging in it should be dealt with forcefully by the law. Al-Qadi’s opinion was supported by another well-known Sheikh and party colleague Fouad Dahabah, the then-Deputy Minister of Awqaf for Guidance and Counselling.

Unveiling the hidden agenda of activism

The corpus of this study indicates that certain media outlets have portrayed the movement against child marriage as an attack on Islam. Munaẓẓamāt, “organizations”, which appears 37 times in the corpus, has been frequently used in the context of organizations advocating for legal reforms, such as setting a minimum age for marriage or campaigning against child marriage (approximately 60%). On the other hand, around 30% of the instances involved religious groups or conservative elements criticizing these organizations. They argue that the efforts of these organizations to impose legal restrictions on marriage practices are in conflict with Islamic teachings or local traditions. These media sources, aligning with proponents of early marriage, criticize Western secular organizations for opposing early marriage, while paradoxically supporting the rights of teenagers to engage in sexual relations outside legal and sharīʿa frameworks. This contradictory stance highlights a deep inconsistency, undermining their arguments. Additionally, these media outlets heavily criticize human rights organizations for their stance against early marriage, arguing that they mistakenly equate it with child marriage and thus deem it harmful to women. These organizations are accused of using their campaigns to malign Islam, suggesting that their true motive is to cast the religion in a negative light.

Sentiment analysis

Research question 3 explored audiences’ reactions to a media report on Nujood Ali, a victim of child marriage in Yemen. Public reaction to stories of the victims of child marriage can undoubtedly be very emotional, supportive to the victim and critical of perpetrators. The visualization in Figure 7 gives an overview of these sentiments.

Analysis of the comments showed different attitudes, mixed emotions and behaviors as shown in Figure 8.

As Figure 8 shows, a range of sentiments were expressed by different individuals. In general, the sentiments in the various comments are overwhelmingly negative. They highlight the criticism, concern and disapproval towards the practice of child marriage in Yemen and the involved parties. The commenters conveyed strong emotional responses to the story of Nujood, advocating for the protection of her rights and punishment of parties responsible for the marriage, including the girl’s family, the groom and the judge who officiated the marriage.

A cursory look at the generated codes showed that the comments addressed issues such as child marriage, criticisms of certain practices, societal perceptions and cultural norms. Some comments expressed frustration and invoked religious sentiments, condemning the practice of marrying off young girls before they complete their education and become successful individuals. Another comment criticized the ignorance and traditional practices in certain regions, particularly regarding child marriage.

Another commentator expressed deep concern and sadness over the mistreatment of the young child, Nujood, and praised the dedication and resilience of her lawyer, Shatha Mohammed, who made up her mind to protect the young girl and to represent her before the court. Some comments expressed anger and frustration over the act of marrying a child at the age of eight, condemning the backwardness, ignorance and the lack of professionalism and ethics that led to such a situation. In brief, many commenters appeared shocked and saddened by the story of Nujood that was brought to light by the media. Some comments used sensitive and taboo terms or expressions, such as Allah ya l’an “may God curse … ”, and yā kafārah “oh, disbelievers”, among others, as shown in the trend visualization in Figure 9.

The plea for divine justice is repeated in many comments, as shown in Figure 10, which shows that the word الله (Allah) and its collocations topped the list of words in this social media corpus.

Sentiments of anger, criticism and condemnation are all expressed by the supporters of child marriage. In one of the comments, the commenter is very critical of Khadijah Al-Salami, who was not even mentioned in the report. Khadijah Al-Salami is the director of a film that is based on the story of Nujood, titled, I am Nujood, Aged 10 and Divorced. The accusatory and suspicious sentiments are made clear when a commenter accused Al-Salami of being an agent working against Islamic values, specifically in collaboration with UNICEF. This accusatory attitude implies that Al-Salami plays a conspiratory role to corrupt Muslim women. In addition, the comment appears to defend the honor and integrity of Yemeni women. The defensive, protective sentiments of traditional views are also obvious as the comment repeatedly defends traditional practices and beliefs, specifically relating to the age of marriage in Islamic history and jurisprudence. The sentiments of criticism and condemnation are also reflected in the comment. The commenter criticized the efforts of some activists and organizations trying to change traditional practices. Such efforts, the commenter claims, aim to attack the Prophet and Islamic teachings.

These sentiments were challenged by another comment advocating for societal progress and adaptation. It quotes Ali Ibn Abi Talib, who advised that children should not be raised the same way one’s parents were. This saying, in line with the majority of Islamic jurisprudence, implies an advocacy for adaptation and change according to new circumstances, times and contexts.

Discussion and conclusions

This study attempted a thematic analysis of a media corpus on child marriage in Yemen, uncovering prevalent themes, narratives and perspectives that highlight the magnitude of the issue, its causes, risks, victims and efforts to mitigate the practice. The findings of this study align with those of previous research, such as Al-Sharabi et al. (2011) on the portrayal of Nujood’s early marriage in online English-language Yemeni newspapers, Atakav (2020) on a documentary film about forced marriage in Turkey, and Utami and Pribadi (2019) on the coverage of child marriage in Indonesian online news. Furthermore, the analysis in this study underscores the pervasive nature of child marriage in Yemen, a reflection not only of local customs but also of the exacerbation of this practice due to ongoing conflict in the country. This study’s findings suggest that economic hardship and social instability due to war significantly contribute to the increase in child marriage. This aligns with previous studies, such as (Parsons et al., 2015), which suggested that families may marry off daughters as a coping mechanism in times of insecurity and economic need.

The findings of this study also show that the intersection of religion, culture and child marriage is a common theme in the coverage of Arab media. Legal sanctions against child marriage often conflict with entrenched cultural and religious norms, a finding also noted by Mishra et al. (2023) and Gemignani and Wodon (2015a). Media discussions often reflect and reinforce religious and cultural justifications for child marriage, even when such positions are contested by other religious and cultural arguments against the practice. This study’s analysis shows that religious figures in the media either uphold or challenge child marriage, indicating a contested religious landscape that mirrors the broader societal debate on this issue. While some studies have confirmed a lot of heterogeneity in practices and beliefs among faith-based communities regarding the practice (Amzat, 2020; Gemignani and Wodon, 2015b), this kind of heterogeneity among religious scholars has not been reported in previous studies.

Moreover, this study illustrates the dual role of media in simultaneously combating and perpetuating child marriage through religious, cultural, or traditional lenses. Traditional media, particularly those aligned with certain political parties, have frequently downplayed or justified the issue of child marriages, sometimes portraying opposition to child marriage as an attack on Islam. This ambivalent portrayal by traditional media is supported by studies like Kasımoğlu and Tekin (2023) in Turkey and Nancy (2018) in Nigeria. Conversely, independent, international and partisan media often depict child marriage as a human rights violation, critiquing governmental inaction and emphasizing the need to protect vulnerable girls. In short, the findings underscore the media’s pivotal role in shaping public opinions and disseminating ideological perspectives (Gong and Firdaus, 2024). Media can simultaneously act as an agent of social change and an instrument of ideological reinforcement. While Arab media has drawn attention to the issue, potentially rallying reform and support for victims, certain media narratives might also inadvertently perpetuate stereotypes or fail to challenge the status quo effectively. Furthermore, the thematic analysis confirms that while media outlets frequently cover the legal and human rights violations associated with child marriage, they also focus heavily on sensationalism (Uzuegbunam and Udeze, 2013), which may skew public perception and policy priorities. In other words, the focus on sensational aspects of individual cases rather than systemic issues reflects an ideological choice that prioritizes immediate, emotive responses over nuanced discussions of systemic reform. This may divert public and policy attention away from the underlying causes and potential solutions. This approach to reporting not only influences public opinion but also supports the hegemonic maintenance of current power dynamics, as sensational coverage tends to reinforce existing prejudices and fears rather than foster informed debate or change.

Despite the hegemonic influence of some media outlets, new and social media have played significant roles in raising awareness and mitigating child marriage by promoting state accountability and advocating for change. The media’s capacity to engage a wide array of community stakeholders in a concentrated effort against child marriage and to amplify the voices of victims and activists signifies considerable progress in addressing this issue. The role of media in countering child marriage is explored in various studies, including (Alqahtani and Alqahtani, 2022; Nnenna, 2023; Raghunathan et al., 2021). However, an important finding of this study is that, while women are the most affected by the practice of child marriage and many female activists have played a key role in combating it through activism and legal advocacy, their contributions are minimized in Arab media coverage of the issue.

The sentiment analysis of social media report and comments revealed predominantly negative sentiments towards child marriage and its deleterious effects on victims, with a notable emphasis on the hegemonic masculinity inherent in many religious interpretations. These findings resonate with Sharifah Syahirah et al. (2018) on sentiment and semantic analysis of child marriage discussions on social media and Shafie and Samsudin (2017) on the discourse analysis of gender and religious interpretations in Malaysian social media. However, the sentiment analysis reflected a significant public disapproval of the practice, which contrasts sharply with the common misconception that child marriage is broadly accepted in Yemeni society. This finding suggests a complex socio-cultural landscape where traditional practices are increasingly scrutinized by the public.

The insights gained from this study may inform policymakers, activists and social workers about the public perception of child marriage in Yemen and potentially guide future strategies to address this social issue more effectively. This study has also underscored the significance of child marriage as a persistent social issue in many Arab countries, highlighting the necessity for continuous efforts in education, policy-making and social initiatives to mitigate its impacts. It provides a critical foundation for targeted actions aimed at eradicating child marriage in Yemen and potentially other regions facing similar challenges.

Limitations and future directions

This study has some limitations. The corpus of this study is based exclusively on online sources and hence it may lack a comprehensive representation of the broader public discourse on child marriage in Yemen, including grassroots opinions and alternative narratives that could enrich the analysis. Another limitation lies in the fact that the compilation of the corpus relies heavily on the Bing search engine to identify relevant web pages. Search engines such as Bing and Google are governed by proprietary algorithms, which can influence the ranking and visibility of media content based on factors that may not necessarily align with academic rigor or relevance. This dependency may introduce a bias toward certain types of content and exclude potentially valuable sources that do not rank highly according to search engines’ algorithms. Hence, the corpus might not capture the full spectrum of discourse necessary for a thorough understanding of the social, cultural and personal dimensions of child marriage in Yemen. Further studies should incorporate a wider array of media types and consider alternative methods of data collection to mitigate the influence of search engine algorithms.

Figures

Figure 1

Sources of the media corpus

Figure 2

Word cloud of the media corpus

Figure 3

A network analysis of media coverage on child marriage in Yemen

Figure 4

A concordance analysis of the term intihāk “breach”

Figure 5

Word cloud of “religion” and its collocations in the corpus

Figure 6

Network analysis of the treatment of religion in the media corpus

Figure 7

Word cloud of comments and sentiments

Figure 8

A network analysis of viewers’ sentiments

Figure 9

Trend visualization showing the use of taboo words in the comments

Figure 10

Frequency of Allah in the corpus

Table 1

Overview of the corpus statistics

Tokens	117,506
Words	101,881
Sentences	3,914
Paragraphs	2,737
Documents	113

Source(s): Author’s work

Table 2

Generation of themes

Codes	Themes
Scale of the practice	Child Marriage as a Practice
Child marriage as a violation of child rights
Causes
Location
Victims
Risks
Combating the practice
Sharīʿa opinion	Media, Religion and Child Marriage
Exploitation and misinterpretation of fatāwā
Legalization of the practice
Debates on minimum age of marriage
Unveiling the hidden agenda of activism

Source(s): Author’s work

Table 3

Analysis of geographic and administrative terms in the corpus

Word/token	Frequency	Per million tokens	% of the focused corpus
%	122	1038.24	0.1
muḥāfadah “province”	30	255.31	0.02
al-qurā “villages”	16	136.16	0.014
al-rīf “countryside”	6	51.06	0.0051
al-aryaf “countryside”	16	136.16	0.014

Source(s): Author’s work

Table 4

Statistics of legal and rights-related terms in the corpus

Word/token	Frequency	Per million tokens	% of the focused corpus
mukhālif “in violation of”	14	119.14	0.012
intihāk “breach”	11	93.61	0.0094
ḥirmān “deprivation”	9	76.59	0.0077

Source(s): Author’s work

Table 5

Statistics of cause-related tokens in the corpus

Word/token	Frequency	Per million tokens	% of the focused corpus
al-faqr “poverty”	57	485.08	0.049
al-ḥarb “war”	74	629.76	0.063
al-‘ādāt “customs”	31	263.82	0.026
al-jahl “illiteracy”	31	263.82	0.026
al-khawf “fear”	11	93.61	0.0094

Source(s): Author’s work

Table 6

Statistics of risk-related tokens in the corpus

Word/token	Frequency	Per million tokens	% of the focused corpus
makhāṭir “risks”	10	85.1	0.0085
yu’thir “impact”	3	25.53	0.0026
yu’adī “to cause”	21	178.71	0.018
al-wafāh “death”	10	85.1	0.0085
aḍrār “risks”	6	51.06	0.0051

Source(s): Author’s work

Table 7

Statistics of religion-related tokens in the corpus

Word/Lemma	No. of tokens	Per million tokens	% of the focused corpus
ad-dīn “the religion”	115	978.67	0.098
dīn “religion”	20	170.2	0.017
dīnī “religious”	5	42.55	0.0043
al-iṣlāḥ “reform”	16	136.16	0.014
fatwā “ruling”	36	306.37	0.031
fatāwā “rulings”	164	1395.67	0.14
tanẓīm “organization”	66	561.67	0.056
ḥizb “party”	7	59.57	0.006
al-qaḍā’ī “judicial”	11	93.61	0.0094

Source(s): Author’s work