Epistemic fluency in virtual laboratories as flipped classroom’s innovative learning delivery

Abstract

Purpose

Design an innovative Flipped classroom’s Delivery through virtual laboratory.

Design/methodology/approach

The fundamental framework of the present investigation is a Participatory Action Research (PAR) design. By merging the impetus of “action.” with the inclusiveness of “participation,” PAR establishes a “network” for collaborative teaching or research. PAR is pertinent to our research because it facilitates the participation of infrastructures and individuals in formulating a critical community. This community encourages critical self-reflection, promotes accountability, redistributes authority, and cultivates confidence in research. PAR fosters constructive transformation in educational environments by utilizing participants' combined insights and experiences to establish a structure for substantive dialogue and proactive measures.

Findings

As virtual laboratories are becoming essential in 21st-century science education, we found groundbreaking evidence that can support our novel approach to enhance the quality and equity in education. Our results show that virtual labs engage scientific goals and practices, develop scientific literacy, foster scientific inquiry and problem-solving, and promote metacognition. The effects of the virtual laboratory can develop high self-efficacy and positive attitudes among students. It improves students' laboratory performance, which we noted from laboratory activities, simulations, and long exam results.

Originality/value

The study offers groundbreaking account to depict epistemic fluency aided by virtual laboratory.

Citation

Errabo, D.D., Paguio, A.J. and Enriquez, P.A. (2024), "Epistemic fluency in virtual laboratories as flipped classroom’s innovative learning delivery", Journal of Research in Innovative Teaching & Learning, Vol. 17 No. 2, pp. 256-281. https://doi.org/10.1108/JRIT-03-2024-0052

Introduction

For generations, the traditional classroom has been the foundation of education. It involves teacher-led lectures and students passively absorbing information, often with additional homework. With the rapid expansion of knowledge and technological advancements, there is a growing acknowledgment of the importance of utilizing digital tools to improve learning experiences (Khayat et al., 2021). Incorporating digital technology into education has developed new learning environments, resources, and opportunities, significantly transforming pedagogical practices (Campillo-Ferrer and Miralles-Martinez, 2021).

Recent changes have made new teaching methods more crucial, providing practical solutions to the changing educational environment and its technological foundations (Nouri, 2016). Blended learning, a concept that integrates online and traditional face-to-face learning methods, has become crucial in this context (Graham, 2013). It strives to engage learners in innovative teacher-student interaction methods and create comprehensive learning environments (Crawford and Jenkins, 2017). Blended learning is recognized for improving academic performance by accommodating various student needs, objectives, and preferences and offering crucial learning assistance (Kassab et al., 2015; Kazu and Demirkol, 2014).

While previous research has shown the benefits of blended learning, learning about online learning is still needed. Likewise, the literature must account for innovative online practices like flipping the classroom. Such a strategy is valuable, in which e-learning in all its forms is becoming the standard (Khazanchi et al., 2022). Moreover, we are interested in seeing what knowledge students acquire and how skills can influence the process of knowing in a conditioned online learning environment. Epistemic fluency involves a dynamic interaction between knowing and knowledge-making practices, providing learners with the skills to navigate complex information environments. The present study delves into the intersection of epistemic fluency and innovative pedagogical approaches, focusing on the innovative strategy that redefines the traditional roles of in-class instruction and homework assignments, providing a fertile ground for nurturing epistemic fluency. Our goal is to underscore the potential of the flipped learning model based on empirical evidence from virtual laboratory artifacts and simulations, students’ scientific attitudes, and self-efficacy.

Background of the study

One of the many strategies for blended learning is the flipped classroom, as discussed by Sajid et al. (2016). This approach addresses the evolving educational landscape by reimagining traditional classroom delivery, as highlighted by Khayat et al. (2021). The approach utilizes digital technology (Bishop, 2014) and methodologies (Bergmann and Sams, 2012; Foldnes, 2016) to provide equitable and high-quality instruction in virtual environments (Abeysekera and Dawson, 2015). It promotes student engagement, interactivity, and collaboration (Divjak et al., 2022). It has popularized an educational strategy known as the “inverted method of teaching,” which involves moving most traditional classroom tasks outside the classroom (Zhou, 2023).

According to Låg and Sæle Låg (2019), a flipped classroom occurs when activities typically done in class are completed outside of class before the actual class meeting. Conversely, activities outside of class are typically performed during the class session. Yilmaz and Baydas (2017) propose a core strategy that suggests shifting material assignments outside the classroom. It allows for more valuable class time, focusing on more advanced tasks like applying and reviewing previously taught information.

According to Aşıksoy and Özdamli (2016) and Nolan et al. (2021), this implementation enhances classroom productivity. Typically, students are introduced to new content outside of class and are expected to independently review and study it before attending the class. This setting involves active participation (Park et al., 2018) through active learning methods (Strelan et al., 2020; Zhou, 2023). It also promotes independent learning (He et al., 2016), resulting in learners who can perform tasks requiring higher-order thinking, observation, and cognition at a significantly higher level compared to other settings (Hinojo et al., 2019).

Students also actively engage with the course material during independent learning, maximizing their classroom time. In addition, students can review the pre-class content multiple times if needed and seek additional assistance, which helps create personalized learning experiences. Similarly, students engage in conversations, collaborate with their peers, and work together to solve challenges during class time (Jung et al., 2018). Recent research has shown that implementing flipped learning techniques has proven effective in increasing motivation and improving learning outcomes (Campillo-Ferrer and Miralles-Martinez, 2021).

The classroom provides an ideal environment for conducting a thorough analysis of the subject matter, allowing for interactive discussions and practical application. Teachers play a crucial role in helping students comprehend intricate subjects through various means, such as facilitating discussions, addressing inquiries, and offering prompt feedback. According to Gilboy et al. (2015) and Betihavas et al. (2016), this approach promotes students' academic independence and allows teachers to better analyze and engage with their learning. Moreover, studies have demonstrated that these techniques facilitate independent learning and enhance metacognitive abilities (Khodaei et al., 2022).

Research objectives

This study investigated epistemic fluency in a flipped classroom’s virtual laboratory. Specifically, we sought to answer the following research questions:

RQ1.

How did virtual laboratories develop epistemic fluency?

RQ2.

What are the effects on laboratory activities, simulation, long exams, students' self-efficacy, and attitude?

Theoretical framework

Our research incorporates Kolb’s Experiential Learning (KEL) framework, as explained by Kee et al. (2023), within the flipped classroom model. KEL is based on the theories of Dewey, Piaget, and Lewin, providing a solid educational framework that intricately explains the processes of learning and development (Kolb, 1984). Kolb introduced this paradigm to bridge the gap between information acquisition and its practical application (Kong, 2021). It underscores the importance of learning through direct experience and evaluates students based on previous experiences (Sternberg and Zhang, 2014). KEL stresses learners' active participation in all stages of the learning journey and explores the critical role that experience plays in the learning process, as explained by Zhai et al. (2017).

As a theoretical framework, KEL views learning as a repetitive process, highlighting the significance of sensory perception and cognitive comprehension gained from actual experiences. This approach leverages the connection between theory and practice to promote more profound and significant learning results. As an instructional strategy that empowers learners to engage in a “Do, Reflect, Think, and Apply cycle,” Butler et al. (2019, p. 12) highlight. Kolb (1984) explains the dynamic process involving the dual dialectics of action/reflection and experience/abstraction that support efficient learning processes.

Concrete experience (CE) is the first step of learning when encounters happen in real-life situations. CE allows students to participate in assignments or activities to navigate knowledge, enabling them to practice and improve essential skills. Next, reflective observation (RO) is an introspective process that follows the tangible experience and involves making meaning. RO facilitates understanding of ways of knowing using systematic processes. It involves a purposeful analysis of experiences, including remembering observations, actions, and feelings.

Then, abstract conceptualization (AC) occurs when learners combine observations to create new concepts consistent with the studied theories. AC entails combining thoughtful thoughts to generate ideas and refining the abstraction of concepts. Active experimentation (AE) is the final stage of the learning cycle, where learners confirm newly developed knowledge by putting it into practice. AE enables individuals to utilize concepts in problem-solving and informed decision-making processes, enhancing their comprehension and expertise in the subject area.

Kolb’s paradigm is an excellent match for the current study, especially in acknowledging virtual laboratory experiences as a vital element in the flipped classroom approach. Knowledge transfer is built through the transformation of events, as Kolb (2015) highlighted. This perspective aligns with the integration of virtual laboratories, allowing students to participate in hands-on exploration and experimentation, promoting a deeper understanding and knowledge creation. In addition, this educational approach motivates students to assume greater responsibility and independence, involving them actively in the learning process within their academic environment. Encouraging students to diversify their learning approaches can help develop essential skills and meta-learning capabilities (Kolb and Kolb, 2017).

Methodology

Research design

The fundamental framework of the present investigation is a Participatory Action Research (PAR) design. By merging the impetus of “action” with the inclusiveness of “participation,” PAR establishes a “network” for collaborative teaching or research. As stated by Morales (2016), this approach emphasizes the cultivation of problem-solving and knowledge-generation capabilities within the educational setting. As Cornish et al. (2023) underscore, it is critical to actively engage with knowledge to confront challenges emerging from societal institutions and explore alternative resolutions.

PAR is pertinent to our research because it facilitates the participation of infrastructures and individuals in formulating a critical community. This community encourages critical self-reflection, promotes accountability, redistributes authority, and cultivates confidence in research. PAR fosters constructive transformation in educational environments by utilizing participants' combined insights and experiences to establish a structure for substantive dialogue and proactive measures.

Research strategy

We used the KEL as a strategy to investigate epistemic fluency. Using four iterative phases, we discerned the ways and the processes of knowing in this flipped classroom’s research. Centered on experiential learning through the virtual laboratory, we determined the simulation skills through AC, self-efficacy through CE, attitude through RO, and laboratory output from the AC to AE. Similarly, this cross-sectional research determined the reflexive influence of the variables (i.e. self-efficacy) from a single point in time.

We expand our observation using the time series experimental approach. In addition, we systematically measure behavior carried out several times over time at intervals that are uniformly spaced apart while preserving the chronological sequence of the measurements (Kaplan and Glass, 1995). Hence, it can fundamentally examine the repeated effects or the development of observation and their relationship over time (Diebold et al., 2010).

Participants and the setting of the study

The study included 96 first-year undergraduate students participating in Botany laboratory courses. These students were actively participating in online learning. They engaged in oral presentations and consequent discussions during synchronous class sessions. Similarly, they participated in asynchronous sessions through independent and personalized learning activities. In the asynchronous class, the students navigated independent and personalized learning activities using the virtual laboratory, consisting of (N = 17) virtual simulations to represent active experimentation and laboratory activities (N = 12) that concretize laboratory experiences.

Furthermore, the students performed 12 laboratory activities to enhance their laboratory experiences. They were grouped into three cohorts (n > 30 students per cohort) to ensure diversity and accommodate learning styles. Such learning styles were visual, auditory, and audio-visual. However, in this article, the ultimate role of these cohorts functioned as replicates for the study, each reflecting unique learning preferences.

Research material and instruments

The study used standardized virtual laboratory simulations powered by Labster® as its primary research material. The simulations significantly enhanced the learning experience and improved student results in a flipped classroom setting. These simulations are crucial as they closely replicate practical, hands-on experiments in physical laboratories.

Moreover, Labster simulations allowed students to engage in AE and understand intricate scientific concepts, ultimately improving learning. This technology allowed students to connect theory with practice, engaging with scientific concepts in a safe and interactive environment. It also enriched their CE, thus developing their self-efficacy and autonomy to navigate the ways and processing of knowing. We adapted Schwarzer and Jerusalem’s (1995) general efficacy questionnaires with Cronbach a = 0.76–0.90 to capture the self-efficacy. Expanding from self-efficacy, students developed innate RO by acquiring knowledge using the virtual laboratory. We adapted Pinar et al.’s (2016) attitude scale with a Cronbach a = 0.72 to capture RO in simulation.

We utilized laboratory activity sheets developed by the Botany professional learning community to enhance virtual laboratory learning experiences. The activity sheets are designed to follow guided inquiry principles and are part of the flipped learning process, covering AC to AE. The lab sheets include pre-lab, lab activities, and post-lab task sections. The pre-lab phase involved an activity where students were given setting details and performance data to support critical inquiry in the Botany lab unit. In addition, students in AC demonstrated a clear understanding of the objectives of this activity. The students showcased exceptional performance in the laboratory, where they could engage in both simulation and laboratory activities concurrently. The investigation was conducted with great attention to detail, which greatly enhanced the effectiveness of CE. Students were provided customized podcasts during the RO stage to help them complete post-lab tasks more effectively.

Data gathering procedure

Over 14 weeks of online learning, we implemented our research intervention through a flipped classroom model utilizing asynchronous methods. Students accessed study resources and tools via their designated learning management portals, with Canvas® as our selected system. Laboratory sessions were organized into three segments to reflect student progression from basic molecular principles to the study of cells, tissues, and organs, resulting in an overall comprehensive understanding at the system level. Lessons included virtual simulations for students to repeatedly practice and improve mastery and weekly virtual experiments to strengthen their comprehension.

Students engaged in one laboratory activity featuring virtual laboratory simulation every week. Every fourth week was reserved for post-lab discussions, where students presented their findings while evaluating them using scientific knowledge and skills related to laboratory activities. This approach captured epistemic fluency development using artifacts associated with self-paced instructional learning. We gauged each artifact’s accuracy based on correct feedback from students' observations during synchronous discussions and lab output checking.

We further evaluated student performance by administering teacher-created comprehensive tests that comprised three assessments every fourth and fifth week, thoroughly assessing competence in Botany laboratory principles and techniques. Long exams were administered using Canvas®. Moreover, evaluations of self-efficacy and attitudes were conducted after each session. Utilizing Google® forms, we administer self-reported questionnaires to capture insights into how this educational innovation influenced students' perspectives and the confidence levels gained throughout the course duration.

Data analysis

We analyzed epistemic fluency by examining the post-laboratory outcomes. First, we looked at activity output. In the activity output, we captured multiple data points that depicted laboratory skills and scientific literacy. We used photovoice to visually document students' milestones using our research innovation, offering insightful viewpoints on virtual laboratory. As described by Wang and Burris (1997), this approach allows participants to convey intricate details of their situations that cannot be fully expressed through words alone. Using photovoice, community knowledge, and best practice evidence can help make practical plans to deal with complicated social problems meaningful to the academic community (Nykiforuk et al., 2011).

In our study, we delved into the development of epistemic fluency by examining the shared learning artifacts that make up laboratory standards. Our analysis identified critical themes within these artifacts and confirmed their accuracy by comprehensively understanding botany concepts. To further support each theme, we utilized snippets showcasing the photovoice of students as they reached significant milestones during their virtual lab experiences. The emerging theme is thoroughly validated using standard scientific practices and explained through ongoing theories found in the literature. With this approach, we gained valuable insights into the development of epistemic fluency and its impact on student learning outcomes.

Then, we captured the effects on students' performance by analyzing the raw scores outcomes and systematically comparing the results from three 100-item long exams throughout the intervention period. Likewise, we documented students' practical understanding and skill advancement in Labster’s simulation exercises. It consisted of 100 item scores generated automatically in every simulation. We generalized this data using comparative mapping to evaluate performance across various simulation topics.

Table 1 presents the scale of measurement for self-efficacy and attitude. We examined the responses from self-efficacy and attitude questionnaires, converting categorical data into interval data to perform a quantitative analysis. Arranging data through frequency distributions and summary statistics, like mean and standard deviation, enabled a thorough analysis.

Results

Virtual laboratories engage scientific goals and practices

Figure 1 displays the post-laboratory activity in a cell division virtual laboratory. These images illustrate epistemic fluency by engaging in scientific goals and practices.

In scenario A, the students presented an epistemic objective that shaped the setting of their laboratory investigation. The students explained scientific phenomena occurring in the growing region of an onion. B investigated this phenomenon by integrating scientific methodologies. The students used science process skills, including observation and measurement, to compare the growth of developing onion cells. During this observation, they calculated the mitotic index to generalize the rate of cell division. A closer look at individual cells undergoing unique stages was showcased in C. In this activity, they could recognize how the cellular material varied in form.

They also compared these materials based on their observations. In D, the overall cell stages were provided and compared according to the cellular stage. The students further classified them according to their similarities and differences. In E, they presented a tabulation of the group’s observations. They were able to systematically organize, synthesize, and communicate their observation based on the general trend of the data. Thus, F concluded their experiences based on systematic ways and processes of knowing. The students observed how goals were articulated in the procedure to generate knowledge. Similarly, they were able to be part of scientific practices, which helped them generate holistic understanding while exploring scientific phenomena.

Virtual laboratories develop scientific literacy

Figure 2 displays the post-laboratory activity in a cell division virtual laboratory. These images illustrate epistemic fluency in the development of scientific literacy. Scientific literacy recognizes scientific knowledge and how such knowledge can create informed decisions. It also engages essential scientific practices that bring about holistic understanding of scientific phenomena.

In scenario A, the student examined the external part of the stem. Three plant representatives have determined for morphological labeling. Here, the students can compare relevant structures across plants' diversity. One can recognize the plant’s identity by highlighting essential features that can be unique per species of plant. In B, he systematically organized each plant’s external structure for comparison. Using a chart, the students prepared an observation matrix to showcase the similarities and differences between plant samples.

In C, he moved into the internal structure and primary tissues. Like the knowledge and skills he applied earlier, he expanded his labeling to D, the stem’s secondary tissues and internal structure. Labeling is a skill that is vital in examining plant tissues. In this section, the student can accurately determine the plant cells and the plant tissue’s cross-section. He explained the arrangement of these tissues towards E and the function of the trichome. In F, he provided a synthesis of the modified stems. He also shared examples of plant specimens with stem and tissue modification and their functions.

Virtual laboratories foster scientific inquiry and problem-solving

Figure 3 displays the post-laboratory activity on the rate of transpiration. These images illustrate epistemic fluency in the development of scientific inquiry and problem-solving. Scientific inquiry is essential for investigating the natural world and our surroundings. Exploring science through inquiry helps enhance comprehension of nature’s complexities through a systematic approach. Problem-solving uses inquiry to achieve deeper understanding by finding appropriate answers to problems, which can accurately explain events and phenomena.

In scenario A, the group of students investigated the effect of some environmental factors on the plant’s transpiration rate. Using the materials, they systematically followed the methods to gather relevant scientific information. Likewise, they used this method to support their hypothesis. In B, they used herbaceous and woody plants' twigs to compare the transpiration rate. After some measurements, they provided a generalized observation in the table. With three replicates, they determined the water loss per leaf area. The students explained that a woody plant has a higher transpiration rate than a herbaceous plant. He generated this claim using the evidence collected using the method. In C, another investigation was performed to extend their understanding further. Here, they examined the rise of the transpiration stream. In D, they offered their observations and measurements. Using two native plants, they supported their findings in B and extended their understanding that woody plants have a faster transpiration rate.

Using cobalt chloride paper and shampoo in E, they set up another experimental condition. They examined the leaves and found more stomata beneath a leaf responsible for locking in the plant moisture. Here, the students gather information to support their understanding of the leaves. In F, they synthesized their observations in the setup. Their observations of scientific knowledge confirmed that plants facilitate transpiration across environmental conditions.

Virtual laboratories promote metacognition

Figure 4 displays the post-laboratory activity on photosynthesis. These images illustrate epistemic fluency in the development of metacognitive learning. Metacognitive learning expands fundamental knowledge to higher forms of learning as it develops students' critical thinking skills and deep learning abilities.

In scenario A, the student illustrated an experiment with the presence of light and starch production. In the picture, plants containing chlorophyll appeared green. In the experiment, the absence of pigment makes the leaf appear white. With the presence of iodine solution, the student explained that some parts of the third leaf may appear green, and leaves undergo photosynthesis to create sugar. Here, scientific justification is relevant to explain a phenomenon. Similarly, justification must be based on sound empirical evidence. The presence and absence of pigment reinforce scientific knowledge.

In B, the student demonstrated a laboratory simulation on the influence of light intensity and wavelength in photosynthesis. Here, the students manipulate essential variables that can induce photosynthetic reactions. In this activity, the student compared the number of bubbles that may be produced, given the distance from the light source. Increasing the amount of energy and the distance of light improved scientific understanding regarding photosynthesis. Alternatively, knowledge creation showed the relationship between the light source and the amount of energy.

In C, the student provided a claim-evidence-reason on the shoot tip. She explained that the tips of some plants may be edible. In D, the student engaged in scientific argumentation, indicating evidence and reasoning based on observations. Here, the student explained the effect of starch. In E, the student used evidence to support a claim to determine the retention factor of selected leaves using a paper chromatography experiment. In F, the student generates a claim and explanation on the relevance of studying the stem part of the plants.

Virtual laboratories’ effects on students’ laboratory activities

Figure 5 provides a comparison of the students’ virtual laboratory activities. In this course of intervention, students accomplished 12 laboratory activities. These activities reflected the scientific knowledge they obtained in the virtual laboratory. It also showed their scientific skills in various contexts of botany.

The data clearly illustrates outstanding student performance in various laboratory activities. Consistent academic excellence is evident as a clear trend emerges among the students. Likewise, there is a clear trend where most data points are clustered around the top end of the scale, indicating a prevalence of high scores in the outcomes. Moreover, the cohorts’ performance indicates a homogenous position toward laboratory fluency. Although, in most cases, the audio-visual learners outranked their counterparts.

This data shows that the intervention has had a notable and beneficial effect on student performance in laboratory activities. Given that the students can access top-notch laboratory facilities, they developed a keen interest and participation in their scientific learning journey, significantly contributing to their achievements.

Virtual laboratories' effects on Labster simulations

Figure 6 provides a comparison of the students’ virtual laboratory activities. In this course of intervention, students performed 17 laboratory simulations. Each simulation activities carryout activities in an immersive laboratory environment at their own pace.

The data presented the trends observed in Labster simulations. The students performed well across different cohorts, achieving high scores in the simulations, particularly in the initial ten simulations. The visual learners consistently perform excellently in laboratory simulations. Initially, all scores were closely matched, indicating similar performance levels near the top of the score distribution. However, as the simulations progressed, a clear difference became apparent in the latter part of the activity. There is a clear regression trend apparent in audio-visual and visual learners.

Multiple reasons could have led to the decrease in simulation performance. All students most certainly encountered a bottleneck effect as they grappled with juggling several academic obligations toward the conclusion of the term. Moreover, their learning approaches significantly contributed to the decline in their ratings. Virtual lab activities primarily focus on visual perception, which leads to more excellent performance for visual learners than audio-visual learners who come in a close second. Notably, audio-visual learners act as a connection between highly visual learners and others with limited visual abilities (i.e. audio learners). As a result, learners who prefer to study through audio had lower performance in Labster simulations because their learning preferences needed to align better with the format of the simulations. This issue worsened because they had to balance and prioritize multiple academic duties. The conflicting requirements may have affected the students' concentration and impaired their performance in subsequent stages of the simulations.

Virtual laboratories’ effects on students’ long exams performance

Figure 7 provides a comparison of the effects of virtual laboratories on students' long exam performance. In this intervention course, students took long exams to determine their theoretical and practical knowledge.

According to the data, the three cohorts demonstrated strong performance, with their scores falling in the upper quartile of the data distribution. The data indicates that students found long exam 1 easier than long exam 2, which was perceived as more challenging. Despite declining student scores in long exam 2, all cohorts have shown improvement in the scores for Long Exam 3. Visual learners outperformed their peers in terms of the cohorts. Similarly, the audio-visual learners achieved lower scores compared to their peers. There has been a change in preference towards long exam 3 for long exam performance. The audio-visual learners outperformed the visual learners, while the audio-learners maintained consistent performance throughout the three long exams.

Virtual laboratories’ effects on students’ self-efficacy

Table 2 provides valuable information about the degrees of self-efficacy displayed by students who engage in virtual laboratories as part of a flipped classroom intervention.

The data shows an aggregate mean score of 3.93, with a standard deviation of 1.17, indicating that the students possess high self-efficacy. Even though the audio-visual group has the highest mean and the audio-learners have the lowest, their scores are considered high when verbally interpreted. Students who possess strong self-efficacy are generally motivated. The students in the flipped classroom show great enthusiasm while engaging in virtual laboratory activities.

Virtual laboratories’ effects on students’ attitude

Table 3 provides valuable information about the degrees of self-efficacy displayed by students who engage in virtual laboratories as part of a flipped classroom intervention.

The findings show an aggregate mean score of 3.68 and a standard deviation of 1.37, indicating a favorable attitude among student cohorts. Audio learners had the highest average score, while visual learners had the lowest. Regardless of the variations, all scores are positive. We noticed that audio learners appear more optimistic in managing workloads at the end of the intervention, which could be impacted by early data indicating a comparative deficiency.

Discussion

Virtual laboratories in the development of epistemic fluency

The virtual environment has seen significant advancements, providing increasingly immersive and interactive experiences that offer valuable educational opportunities (Marougkas et al., 2023). This advancement enriches students' learning experiences by fostering more profound engagement with course materials, as Tsirulnikov et al. (2023) emphasized.

Virtual laboratories play a crucial role in fostering epistemic fluency by promoting exploration, experimentation, and active engagement in the learning process. They also help cultivate a mindset that supports self-directed learning. Epistemic fluency encompasses a broad set of cognitive abilities that empower students to identify and engage with different methods of acquiring knowledge (Markauskaite and Goodyear, 2017). In our analysis, we have identified four key themes that demonstrate how virtual laboratories foster the development of epistemic fluency.

First, the virtual laboratory engages in scientific goals and practices. The learning goals offer a mental picture of a desired outcome that inspires and guides actions, directing a clear sense of purpose and direction and motivating individuals with determination and focus. Our study employed specific objectives to guide students in examining the various aspects of onion growth. It allowed for thoroughly examining physiological processes like cell division, elongation, and differentiation. The practical approach improved students' understanding of botanical principles and developed their observational skills by encouraging them to carefully document cellular changes over time.

Goals play a crucial role in acquiring knowledge, as they help us understand concepts and strategies. The research conducted by Dweck and Leggett (1988), Grant and Dweck (2003), and Liem et al. (2008) showcases a wide range of learning approaches. Although, inherently, Botany emphasizes the nature of science (NOS) as an important goal, ongoing discussions about acceptable pedagogies relate to scientific practices (Brock and Park, 2022).

Osborne (2014) highlights the importance of scientific practices in aiding students to gain a comprehensive understanding of established knowledge, the acquisition methods, and the principles that govern scientific processes. Scientific practices aim to improve the efficiency of acquiring knowledge and accurately represent the scientific field (Osborne, 2014; Jimenez-Liso et al., 2021). Our research uncovered that scientific practices are crucial for generating knowledge and effectively integrating various scientific methodologies, processes, and skills. Students who utilize these methods demonstrate a thorough data analysis and employ a systematic problem-solving approach, resulting in well-informed conclusions. In addition, these methods allow students to effectively communicate their findings, thereby fostering the spread of information and collaboration within the botany class.

Second, the virtual laboratory develops scientific literacy. It emphasizes the necessity of encouraging knowledge acquisition and the development of learning, inquiry, and transfer abilities (Jonāne, 2015). Berland et al. (2016) argued that individuals transition from acquiring knowledge to actively applying scientific concepts, enhancing their understanding of the world through practical activities and inquiry. Critical to students' learning, honing scientific literacy provides the students with the ability to assess information critically, ask probing questions, and draw connections between scientific concepts and real-world situations.

Our research indicates that when participants actively engage in sound scientific practices, they develop a deep understanding of scientific phenomena. Encouraging curiosity among students leads to asking scientific questions and discovering practical solutions, which in turn enhances engagement, resulting in a more meaningful learning experience and empowering students to explore complex ideas (Errabo et al., 2024a). Their examination of plant tissues showcased high scientific knowledge and skills. They gained a deeper understanding of plant tissues by engaging in hands-on virtual exploration, which allowed them to grasp the intricacies of plant’s internal and external structures and their functions.

Our findings corroborate Glaze’s (2018) description, revealing that a scientifically literate individual has the necessary knowledge and understanding of scientific concepts. Likewise, Showalter (1974) affirmed it as someone who knows the essence of science uses applicable scientific principles and laws precisely and reliably, employs scientific techniques and makes judgments, reinforces understanding, communicates scientific issues, and conforms with scientific values.

Third, the virtual laboratory fosters scientific inquiry and problem-solving. Through this, we explored scientific knowledge and comprehended the complex processes that support it (Novak, 1964). Humphreys (2004) argued that scientific knowledge is based on the methods science has developed for collecting and interpreting information.

One of our results centers around investigating how various environmental factors affect plant transpiration. Students actively develop theories, conduct careful observations, and conduct rigorous experiments during this investigation. The primary objective is distinct in students in designing experiments, gathering data, analyzing results, drawing conclusions, and effectively communicating findings (Teig et al., 2018). By engaging in these activities, learners enhance their understanding of plant physiology and develop essential scientific skills such as hypothesis formulation, evidence gathering, and analysis. They eventually lead to theory construction, precise data gathering, and methodical hypothesis examination (Lederman et al., 2014; Gyllenpalm et al., 2022). In addition, students gain practical insights into the complex dynamics of ecological systems and the strong connections between environmental conditions and plant responses through hands-on virtual research of real-world events. This approach engages students in the essential complexities of logical reasoning, as Pedaste et al. (2015) emphasized. By actively engaging in this holistic learning method, students develop a deep comprehension of the interrelationships within the natural world, enhancing their scientific knowledge.

Scientific inquiry is a globally recognized strategy consistently integrated into educational curricula (Abd-El-Khalick et al., 2004). Inquiry-based learning shifts the focus from traditional teacher-centered lectures to student-led exploration, facilitating knowledge generation (Jerrim et al., 2020; Fan and Ye, 2022). Likewise, investigating the inquiry process is crucial for comprehending the nature of science (NOS) (Lederman et al., 2002). NOS emphasizes scientific knowledge, while scientific inquiry explores scientists' procedures and developing and validating scientific information (Lederman et al., 2014; Gyllenpalm et al., 2022). This understanding is crucial for collaboratively addressing present problems (Beck et al., 2019).

Fourth and finally, the virtual laboratory promotes meta-cognition. Recent educational research has progressed in recognizing the importance of meta-cognition in improving learning outcomes and academic achievements (Fleur et al., 2021). Although only a few pioneering studies have explored meta-cognition in virtual laboratories, we can account for learning artifacts that can develop epistemic fluency.

Our observations revealed that students exhibited competence in anticipating outcomes and providing scientific reasoning for phenomena such as the presence of light and the formation of starch. It supports the idea presented by Garrett et al. (2006) that meta-cognition includes understanding the cognitive processes that come before and after engaging in a task. This encompasses predicting outcomes before commencing a task and carrying out a comprehensive performance assessment afterward.

Furthermore, the students showcased their proficiency in adjusting the intensity and wavelength of light to initiate photosynthetic reactions successfully. They developed a profound comprehension of the intricate correlation between light and energy levels through meticulous observation. This intentional learning arrangement exemplifies the students' ability to self-regulate, as emphasized by Schleicher (2019). According to Stebner et al. (2022), this remarkable meta-cognitive ability is often deemed transferable across various domains, disciplines, and activities. To harness this skill set effectively, learners must possess a comprehensive grasp of cognitive, motivational, and meta-cognitive strategies, as Wirth et al. (2020) highlighted. Moreover, individuals must adroitly implement these strategies across diverse learning tasks and fields to optimize their academic outcomes.

Students engaged in scientific argumentation utilizing a claim-evidence-reason framework to substantiate their claims. They employed scientific knowledge to generate claims and explanations while studying plant stems, employing meta-representational techniques that utilize deductive reasoning as an essential tool for understanding. These representations allow observing and modifying reasoning processes in real-time, providing insight into the metacognitive skills necessary for self-regulation and cognitive control (Markovits et al., 2015). Metacognitive processes in reasoning refer to mechanisms that supervise and regulate cognitive functions such as thinking, problem-solving, and decision-making (Ackerman and Thompson, 2014). Meta-reasoning by Nelson and Narens (1990) analyzes higher-level cognitive processes that monitors the regulation of lower-level cognitive functions. Essentially departing from the direct examination of conclusion-drawing processes, meta-reasoning concentrates on evaluative aspects of reaching a decision by deliberately allocating cognitive resources toward problem-solving efforts (Markovits et al., 2015).

The aforementioned scientific practices promote epistemic fluency, which advances critical thinking through meta-cognition. Comprehending meta-cognition is crucial for enhancing critical thinking abilities as it encompasses being conscious of one’s cognitive processes, resulting in more efficient knowledge acquisition and improved learning outcomes (Rivas et al., 2022). Understanding meta-cognition involves overseeing and regulating one’s cognitive functions, essential for learning and education (Zimmerman, 1990; Zimmerman and Schunk, 2001; Pintrich, 2002).

Moreover, Flavell (1976) introduced “meta-knowledge” to explain how individuals understand and control their cognitive processes during cognitive activities. Regarding virtual laboratory activities specifically–students go beyond simple tasks, instead focusing on critical thinking while adapting their approach toward achieving specific learning goals. Understanding meta-cognitive engagement involves two main components: meta-cognitive knowledge about oneself or the task at hand and meta-cognitive control, also known as self-regulated learning involving purposeful management by learners (Flavell, 1976). Students demonstrated strong engagement with meta-cognitive concepts, actively pursuing science-based goals/practices, developing literacy skills, and refining inquiry/problem-solving techniques.

Additionally, our study on meta-cognitive engagement revealed fascinating insights into student performance despite the challenging nature of long-term project lab tasks-consistently showing high proficiency levels throughout the coursework, indicating high-level meta-cognitive control involved various self-regulatory processes such as planning monitoring adaptation based upon continuous assessments feedback previously highlighted by Baker and Brown (1984), Livingston (2003), Fleur et al., (2021).

Within virtual laboratory environments, the students participate actively across various cognitive functions essential toward inquiry problem-solving, including object identification, distinguishing relevant/irrelevant information, making informed decisions, meaningful encoding mentally representing spatial relationships (Nelson and Narens, 1994; Fleur et al., 2021). One exciting aspect of the findings highlights the importance of meta-knowledge transfer/management information across different cognitive levels, taking info from the object level and analyzing it higher up before regulating and controlling it and then applying it back down (Nelson and Narens, 1994).

The complex relationship between meta-cognitive processes, highlighting advanced skills when navigating intricate environments like virtual laboratories, demonstrates the capacity to effectively interact with scholarly material, thoughtfully manage learning approaches, and enhance comprehension. Metacognitive control provides insight mechanisms that contribute to overcoming academic obstacles within these settings.

Effects on laboratory activities, simulation, long exams, students’ self-efficacy, and attitude

Virtual laboratories have had a favorable effect on students' academic performance. By actively participating in laboratory activities, immersive Labster simulations, and thorough long exams, students have shown a significant improvement in their understanding of the subject matter. Our claim is supported using empirical quantitative data to support our generalization. These evaluative outcomes, highlighted by Ismail et al. (2022), play an essential role in education, enabling educators to identify students' progress and adjust instructional strategies accordingly (Popham, 2008). At the same time, students gain valuable insights from this feedback loop, allowing them to fine-tune their learning strategies to suit better their unique needs and preferences (Heritage, 2012).

At first, we utilized formative assessments like laboratory activities and Labster simulations in our approach. As Hofstein and Lunetta (2004) highlighted, these components play crucial roles in science education as they promote increased student engagement and understanding of natural phenomena. By utilizing laboratory activities, we emphasized the importance of active participation, encouraging students to explore the natural world and gain practical knowledge essential for scientific comprehension and progress (Feinstein et al., 2013).

Our data analysis indicates that students' performance in various laboratory tasks prompted them to adopt a thoughtful and analytical approach to understanding botanical concepts. This approach facilitated a dynamic interaction between their existing knowledge and acquiring new knowledge. As such, involvement not only fostered a deeper comprehension of the intricacies of plant science but also consistently enhanced their academic achievements, thus igniting their passion for knowledge. In addition, a study conducted by Itzek-Greulich et al. (2017) indicates that these methods enhance motivation by highlighting the practical application of scientific concepts in real-life situations (Gericke et al., 2023). Labster’s integration as a virtual simulation platform has been crucial in enhancing students' comprehension of laboratory concepts among cohorts.

Virtual simulations are highly recognized for their effectiveness in facilitating skill assessment and development. Through individualized and customized laboratory experiences, students continuously enhance their scientific knowledge and skills. In their study, Flurin et al. (2022) highlight the benefits of using virtual simulations to improve cognitive abilities and promote evidence-based practice. Although we noticed variations in simulation performance among different groups, we argue that these simulations supported virtual laboratory experiences, ultimately making laboratory activities more accessible and manageable. These simulations, known for their immersive nature, help students enhance their motor control, decision-making abilities, and communication skills (Lopreiato, 2016).

Then, we utilized a long exam as a summative assessment to generalize epistemic understanding in the Botany lab. The long exams were critical evaluations, systematically measuring students' abilities and deep understanding of the subject matter. As highlighted by Smadi et al. (2023), essential competence provides students with the essential information and abilities needed for future success. In this case, long exams thoroughly evaluated the required learning competencies, covering various topics, from cellular processes to systemic relationships, to ensure compliance with the laboratory course standards. Analysis of students' empirical scores across each group consistently revealed strong performances on all three comprehensive tests. This innovation has significantly improved students' perceptions of their abilities and has boosted their performance on long exams (Errabo et al., 2024b). It showcases the effectiveness of the instructional techniques employed in the class and the student’s aptitude for comprehending and utilizing the acquired knowledge across various activities.

Furthermore, our study evaluated students' cognitive aptitude based on their performance and skill aptitude by measuring self-efficacy and attitudes. The results demonstrated a consistently high self-efficacy due to the virtual laboratory experience. Kolil et al. (2020) argued that self-efficacy is critical in determining academic success and performance. They emphasized its significant influence on behavior and performance improvement while learning. Therefore, cultivating self-efficacy is vital for promoting students' achievement and improving their educational results. In addition, Tomás et al. (2020) emphasized the importance of self-efficacy, optimism, and motivation in influencing students' academic accomplishments. The studies conducted by Galyon et al. (2012) and AlDahdouh (2018) provide further evidence supporting the positive relationship between self-efficacy, classroom involvement, and academic achievements. These findings emphasize the significance of fostering and improving students' self-efficacy, as it motivates their academic advancement.

Based on Bandura’s (1977) theory, which suggests that people’s behavior is influenced by their beliefs about their abilities and expected results, our study found that students who were confident in their abilities showed increased effort and resilience when faced with laboratory activities. Furthermore, virtual laboratory simulations are essential in developing a positive attitude towards Botany. These simulations are valuable tools that effectively incorporate technology into education, as Polikarpus et al. (2023) emphasized, promoting learners' confidence and encouraging a proactive approach to independent learning. These simulations cultivate high motivation and engagement among students by incorporating interactive virtual activities. This approach enables students to engage in their academic journey actively, resulting in notable enhancements in learning outcomes, as Tsirulnikov et al. (2023) emphasized.

Similarly, the integration emphasizes the importance of fostering independence and self-motivation in learning. A study by Tussyadiah et al. (2018) and Ambusaidi et al. (2018) emphasizes the significance of virtual laboratory settings in promoting a favorable and enthusiastic approach to learning among students. Hence, these findings underscore the substantial influence that virtual laboratory simulations can have on students' attitudes and overall learning experience.

Finally, a positive attitude promotes active participation in hands-on learning activities, including questioning, peer relationships, and task completion (Korkmaz et al., 2023). These actions are consistent with the collaborative learning principles inherent to the flipped classroom paradigm (Smallhorn, 2017). Furthermore, students with optimistic attitudes show better resilience in the face of adversity, which fosters creative problem-solving skills required for effective engagement with course content (Taherkhani et al., 2023).

Conclusion

The present study investigated epistemic fluency through the virtual laboratory’s innovative flipped classroom delivery. As virtual laboratories are becoming essential in 21st-century science education, we found groundbreaking evidence that can support our novel approach to enhance the quality and equity in education. The virtual lab developed epistemic fluency through the engagement of scientific goals and practices. It developed scientific literacy and fostered scientific inquiry and problem-solving. It also promotes meta-cognition. Therefore, we conclude that the effect of the intervention is notable and beneficial to students’ performance in laboratory activities. It contributed to excellent performance in the Labster simulation; however, learning preference is a factor in the success of the intervention. Alternatively, the intervention contributed to solid student performance in the long exams. Indeed, the effect of virtual laboratories can develop high self-efficacy and positive attitudes among students. This study adds valuable insights to the current body of literature by presenting evidence that supports the enhancement of epistemic fluency through virtual laboratory experiences. We emphasize the effectiveness of these experiences in promoting critical thinking, problem-solving skills, and a profound comprehension of scientific concepts. Our research enriches the ongoing discussions surrounding enhancing quality and equity in education. By utilizing empirical evidence and theoretical frameworks, we can gain valuable insights into the capabilities of virtual laboratories in improving learning outcomes and fostering inclusivity within educational environments.

Implications and limitations of the study

Implementing the virtual laboratory in the flipped classroom demonstrates cutting-edge teaching techniques in higher education. This platform provides students with a high-quality learning experience that is immersive, interactive, flexible, and personalized. In this model, we discovered a virtual laboratory that serves as a hub for the dynamic exchange between various practices of knowing and knowledge creation. From a comprehensive understanding of scientific knowledge, such as Botany, to the different methods and techniques used to acquire it, this explores the complex mechanisms through which knowledge is obtained, assessed, and applied in various virtual laboratory activities. It involves gathering information and actively pursuing improvement, using scientific processes and methods while drawing on valid, accurate, reliable, and relevant sources of knowledge and assessment.

According to our research, epistemic fluency is effectively employing multiple approaches and frameworks to create and validate knowledge. They include various scientific practices such as laboratory work, Labster simulations, and long exams. Engaging in these activities helps students acquire scientific knowledge and skills related to scientific goals and practices, literacy, inquiry, problem-solving, and metacognition. Moreover, epistemic fluency boosts students' self-efficacy and attitudes. Students who attain this fluency can blend knowledge from diverse sources and perspectives, promoting multidisciplinary approaches to creativity and problem-solving. They perceive complex issues as opportunities for problem-solving and equip themselves with the skills and knowledge essential for successfully addressing the challenges of knowledge production. These students develop adaptability, intellectual agility, and a dedication to lifelong learning, ultimately contributing to their personal growth and societal progress.

Teachers can improve their teaching methods by adjusting them to help students feel more confident in their abilities and develop a deeper understanding of the subject matter. It requires investing in faculty development programs to develop creative instructional models and utilizing digital platforms such as virtual laboratories to enhance meaningful learning experiences. In addition, educators have the opportunity to highlight the importance of hard work, determination, and self-confidence in the achievement of students. Meanwhile, curriculum designers can create educational experiences that foster academic and social-emotional development. Policymakers must give utmost importance to comprehensive education programs that not only focus on academic success but also cater to the well-being of students. By doing so, learners will be equipped with the necessary skills to navigate the challenges of the contemporary world confidently and resiliently.

On the other hand, our study is constrained by the specific context in which we are examining the use of virtual laboratories to assess epistemic fluency. We approach flipped learning as a cutting-edge method of instruction, utilizing virtual environments to present an alternative representation of reality (i.e. face-to-face interaction) via digital platforms. Our design is focused on the interaction within the Botany lab course, specifically targeting first-year students. While we considered the students' various learning styles, their purpose merely acted as replicates in the implementation of our innovation. The focus of our study is to investigate the impact of different learning styles on cognition and epistemic fluency. We aim to comprehend how diverse instructional methods influence students' ability to assimilate and put knowledge into practice. By thoroughly examining individuals' learning preferences and the development of their cognitive abilities, we seek to identify effective methods for promoting a deep understanding of knowledge across various educational environments.

In future research, it would be beneficial to investigate the expression of epistemic fluency across learning preferences. Understanding how these preferences affect knowledge acquisition and application can provide valuable insights for tailoring instructional approaches to meet the diverse needs of students. It is essential to thoroughly examine the factors influencing the development of epistemic fluency, including students' demographic characteristics such as age, gender, socioeconomic background, and cultural context. Understanding these dynamics can empower educators to create inclusive and highly effective educational experiences. For instance, by incorporating teaching practices that respect different cultures and leveraging adaptive learning technologies, educators can effectively address the specific needs of students from diverse backgrounds, leading to increased student engagement and improved academic performance. Further research can enrich our understanding of education by thoroughly exploring the intersection between different learning styles and demographics. This enhanced understanding can guide the development of a more sophisticated approach to education to promote equal opportunities and achieve exceptional learning outcomes for all.

Figures

Figure 1

Post lab on cell division showing epistemic goals and practices

Figure 2

Post lab on plant tissue and stem while developing scientific literacy

Figure 3

Post lab on the rate of transpiration using scientific inquiry and problem solving

Figure 4

Post lab on photosynthesis revealing metacognitive learning

Figure 5

The students’ performance in the laboratory activities

Figure 6

The Labster simulations

Figure 7

The long exams performance

Table 1

The scale of measurement in self-efficacy and attitude

Self-efficacy		Attitude
4.50–5.00	Very high	4.50–5.00	Very positive
3.50–4.49	High	3.50–4.49	Positive
2.50–3.49	Neutral	2.50–3.49	Neutral
1.50–2.49	Low	1.50–2.49	Negative
1.00–1.49	Very low	1.00–1.49	Very negative

Source(s): Table by the authors

Table 2

The effects in self-efficacy

Learning style	Mean	Standard deviation	Verbal interpretation
Audio-visual	4.22	0.91	High
Visual	3.82	1.19	High
Audio	3.77	1.42	High
Average	3.93	1.17	High

Source(s): Table by the authors

Table 3

The effects in the attitude

Learning style	Mean	Standard deviation	Verbal interpretation
Audio-visual	3.73	1.34	Positive
Visual	3.50	1.44	Positive
Audio	3.83	1.34	Positive
Average	3.68	1.37	Positive

Source(s): Table by the authors