Solo traveling behavior in pre-pandemic and post-pandemic eras – a comparative analysis

Purpose – This study aims to empirically investigate solo travel behavior, comparing decision-making, destination choice, motivations, perceived experiences and constraints between the pre-pandemic and post-pandemiceras. Design/methodology/approach – Using a mixed-methods approach, the study combines quantitative and qualitative data to enhance reliability and flexibility. An online survey attracted 250 respondents, providing demographic data and pandemic-related insights, complemented by eight in-depth interviews. Qualitative content analysis was used to extract key findings on motivations, constraints and destinationchoices. Findings – The findings reveal that, pre-pandemic, independence and flexibility were key motivators for solo travel, with safety and budget as significant constraints. During the pandemic, half of the respondents continued solo travel, mainly within Europe, facing constraints related to destination choice and health concerns. Post-pandemic, solo travel interest resurged, emphasizing unchanged motivations but reduced concerns over companionship and planning. The study identifies a ‘‘traveling for revenge’’ trend post-pandemic,showcasinga desiretoovercome constraintsimposed during the pandemic. Originality/value – The study contributes original insights into the nuanced changes in solo travel behavior due to the COVID-19 pandemic, offering a deeper understanding of solo travelers ’ evolving mindsets. It is one of the fewstudies to examinethe pandemic ’ s impact on solo traveling, providing short-term shifts inmotivations and constraintswith implicationsforthe travel industry.


Introduction
A significant increase in solo travel has been noticed in the past decades (Hamid et al., 2021;Laesser et al., 2009) attributed to increased individualism in today's society, a general increase in consumption as well as changes in attitudes toward solitary activities (Klinenberg, 2012;Santos et al., 2017).However, existing solo travel research focuses mainly on women, neglecting the male perspective (Alonso-Vazquez et al., 2023;Brown et al., 2020;Heimtun and Abelsen, 2014) and often concentrates on specific regions rather than providing a holistic overview (Bianchi, 2022;Yang et al., 2022).Existing literature on solo traveling covers mainly constraints as well as motivational factors focusing on specific geographical areas (Chung et al., 2017;Tan and Wu, 2016;Yang, 2021;Yang and Tung, 2018).An interesting area of investigation relates to the influence of the COVID-19 pandemic on solo travel; this paper compares solo travel behavior and its related experiences before, during and after the pandemic.
The COVID-19 pandemic, formally ongoing between March 2020 to June 2022 has had a huge negative impact on tourism and hospitality industries worldwide (Colmekcioglu et al., 2022;Bremser et al., 2021).It restricted customer behavior and heavily limited tourists'mobility (Rather et al., 2023).As health risk factors can influence tourists travel intentions (Chew and Jahari, 2014), the study of the influence on solo traveling appears an important research theme.As highlighted by Okafor et al. (2022), a dominant trend known as "traveling for revenge" has rapidly gained prominence.This behavior shows a significant rebound in international travel, showcasing a compelling response to the pandemic's constraints.To address this gap, this paper aims to investigate solo travelers' behavioral patterns during different times; a time of global health and economic crisis due to the pandemic, and times outside it with normal conditions.This research makes a valuable addition to the current body of knowledge, with a particular emphasis on individual solo travelers' decision making, their motivations, experiences and new trends followed by them.Accordingly, the following research questions are addressed: RQ1.How do solo travelers reason about their trips during normal conditions compared to an ongoing global pandemic?
RQ2.What insights can be gathered about their behavioral patterns concerning decision-making, destination choice, motivations, perceived experiences and constraints?

Literature review
The term ''solo traveler'' Understanding the term "solo traveler" requires navigating various interpretations within the current literature.Some studies define solo travel based on the arrival status of an individual (McNamara and Prideaux, 2010), while others focus on whether someone travels alone or mostly alone (Wilson, 2004;Bianchi, 2016).In addition, solo travel encompasses diverse experiences such as visiting friends and relatives, backpacking, business travel and volunteer tourism (Campbell, 2009;Gomes and Montenegro, 2016;McNamara and Prideaux, 2010;Wantono and McKercher, 2020) but also digital nomads and medical tourists who may follow the same pattern.This inconsistency in conceptualization has hindered theoretical progress and meaningful comparison of research findings (Yang, 2021).To provide clarity, we distinguish between independent travelers and solo travelers.Independent travelers neither opt for exclusive package tours nor travel in groups, they craft their own travel plans and show a keen interest in exploring their destination upon arrival (Chai, 1996).Solo travelers focus solely on the arrival status of individuals at their destinations.While they may begin their journey alone, they might join other travelers or arrange experiences with tour guides during their trip (Foo, 1999;Wilson, 2004).This distinction enhances our understanding of solo travel and its variations in tourism experiences.

Motivations
The reasons for traveling are generally categorized into push and pull factors.Push factors arise from the traveler's internal desires, while pull factors are related to the attractions or features of the destination itself (Dann, 1977).Concerning solo travel motivation, personal freedom and flexibility, independence as well as the opportunity for self-discovery and meeting new people, are more prominent than destination related pull factors (Osman et al., 2020;Seow and Brown, 2018).In addition, escaping from one's usual surroundings or routine is also identified as a significant reason.The motivations of solo travelers do not always vary from those of typical travelers (Vada et al., 2022).Furthermore, travel motivations differ depending on how experienced a solo traveler is (Otegui-Carles et al., 2022).Mehmetoglu et al. (2001, p. 19) presented 13 socio-psychological motivational factors that include "ease, experience, flexibility, freedom, exploration, absence of a travel companion, prestige, sex, spontaneity, temporal considerations, guilt avoidance, solitude j CONSUMER BEHAVIOR IN TOURISM AND HOSPITALITY j and selective contact."They also grouped solo travelers into two categories: those lacking a companion and those who actively choose to travel solo.Osman et al. (2020) confirmed their results and further divided solo travel motivations into personal factors and social interaction factors.Previous research has revealed a clear correlation between gender issues and various motivations, concerns, perceived risks and experiences.It has also highlighted gender discrepancies to some extent (Chiang and Jogaratnam, 2006;Douglas and Barrett, 2020;Gibson et al., 2012;Harris and Wilson, 2007;Karago ¨z et al., 2021;Otegui-Carles et al., 2022;Wilson and Little, 2008).

Constraints
Constraints that hinder individuals (including solo travelers) from acting as they desire have been studied extensively.Early research categorized constraints into internal (e.g.personality, attitudes) and external factors (e.g.lack of time, money) (Francken and Van Raiij, 1981).However, criticism of this distinction suggests that both dimensions can influence each other (Jackson, 1988).Solo travel presents its own challenges, including heightened feelings of insecurity and vulnerability, which tend to decrease after the first solo trip (Yang, 2021).Female solo travelers, in particular, often express greater fear and concern regarding these risks (Karago ¨z et al., 2021;Jonas, 2022).Crawford and Godbey (1987) categorized constraints into intrapersonal, interpersonal and structural types.
Interpersonal constraints involve individuals' relationships with others and a lack of suitable companions, a significant concern in solo travel (Chung et al., 2017;Osman et al., 2020).
Intrapersonal constraints relate to psychological perceptions like lack of confidence and anxiety (Wilson, 2004).Structural constraints encompass physical and demographic factors such as time and financial limitations, which can be particularly impactful for solo travelers due to the absence of cost-sharing companions (Yang, 2021).
The constraint negotiation model proposed by Hubbard and Mannell (2001)  Interestingly, the pandemic has not only facilitated solo travel by enabling individuals to maintain social distancing but has also inadvertently led to reduced social interactions and socialization (Sung et al., 2021).Research on the behaviors of young individuals indicates that increased travel motivation stems from feeling confined and unable to explore new places (Aebli et al., 2022).Young people perceive travel, especially post-pandemic, as advantageous (Le et al., 2023).Perceived risk elements, including psychological risks and health perceptions, significantly influence travel intentions post-COVID-19 (Bhati et al., 2021;Silva et al., 2022).Despite travel restrictions, authors suggest that the pandemic itself may act as a catalyst for changes in individual behavior, with COVID-19 awareness and past experiences shaping post-pandemic travel decisions (Le et al., 2023;Aldao et al., 2022).
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Approach
A mixed-methods approach was chosen for this research to combine the strengths of quantitative and qualitative data.Quantitative data provides statistical insights and general trends, while qualitative data offers detailed insights into individual experiences, adding depth to the results.This dual approach addresses limitations of using either method alone, enhancing the reliability and credibility of conclusions.In addition, the approach shows a high degree of flexibility allowing the exploration of unexpected findings and contributing to a holistic understanding (Creswell and Creswell, 2023).The chosen approach has given the authors the opportunity to capture a wide range of perspectives by reaching a wide audience with the survey and gaining in depth insides through the interviews contributing to a holistic view of solo travelers' behavior during the pandemic (Molina-Azorı ´n and Font, 2016).The study used an online survey with both quantitative and qualitative components, supplemented by indepth interviews.The objective was to recognize a diverse segment of the global population, thereby showcasing the complex nature of the topic and representing a spectrum of perspectives on it.

The designed survey
Using a mixed methods approach, Sunet Survey served as a tool for designing the study's survey, drawing insights from pertinent literature.Theoretical guidance primarily sourced from Mehmetoglu et al. (2001) and Otegui-Carles et al. (2022) informed the crafting of questions on solo travel motivation, while questions on constraints were shaped by studies by Yang (2021), Chung et al. (2017) and Osman et al. (2020).Prior to the survey, a pilot study involving approximately ten 30-min interviews with both male and female solo travelers was conducted to gain initial insights.
The designed survey captured demographic data and pandemic-related insights through closed-ended and open-ended questions.Closed-ended questions used a Likert-scale format, covering topics such as travel frequency, pre-pandemic experiences, motivations, encountered constraints and pandemic effects.Open-ended questions invited respondents to share details about their travel experiences and observed changes in behavior.A limitation of Sunet Survey is the lack of linkage between responses and individuals, preventing direct discernment of demographic characteristics.Consequently, data analysis using R-Commander was necessary to evaluate responses based on gender distribution.

Data collection and sampling method
The survey, available from February to March 2023, was distributed through various channels, including relevant solo travel Facebook and WhatsApp groups, the author's personal LinkedIn profile and reposts.In addition, Generator Stockholm, a hotel chain in Stockholm, displayed a QR code at their reception desk linking to the survey.The survey was also circulated through personal networks in Germany and Sweden.
In total, the survey attracted 250 respondents.To complement the data, eight additional indepth interviews were conducted.These interviews involved six female and two male participants, aged between 24 and 65, with an average age of 33 years.The interviews were conducted both in person and online.The author leveraged personal networks to identify suitable interviewees, none of whom were previously known to the author.All participants provided written consent for their data to be processed in accordance with European GDPR law and agreed to have their interviews recorded for transcription.Both the survey and interviews required participants to be at least 18 years old and to have experienced solo travel at least once before responding to the questions.
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Analysis method
Content analysis, chosen for its suitability in analyzing both qualitative and quantitative data (Bryman, 2016;Kleinheksel et al., 2020), encompasses techniques that generate replicable inferences from various forms of communication, aiding in the interpretation of social reality, particularly in the context of solo travelers' behavioral patterns and experiences (Drisko and Maschi, 2016;Renz et al., 2018).Using a mixed-methods approach, researchers delineate both manifest and latent content, extracting clear figures and numbers while also exploring deeper meanings within texts and visuals (Kleinheksel et al., 2020).
For this study, an inductive content analysis approach was used, wherein commonly found themes were induced from the texts (Vears and Gillam, 2022).Qualitative content analysis, used to present the four key findings, followed established guidelines to ensure reliability and validity.Firstly, all text was transcribed into written form for analysis.Next, individual themes served as the basic unit of analysis, allowing flexibility in assigning text segments to relevant themes (Mayring, 2000;Vears and Gillam, 2022).Coding of material involved assigning codes to different segments, enabling categorization of key concepts (Bradley et al., 2007).A category scheme was developed, supported by a coding manual with definitions and examples.After coding the entire data set, consistency checks were conducted.The identified themes (Figure 1) when analyzing the texts from the qualitative questions in the survey as well as the interviews were: motivation to travel solo before and after the pandemic; solo travel constraints before and during the pandemic; destination choice before, during and after the pandemic; and change of interest in solo travel compared to before and after the pandemic.
Conclusions were drawn from the coded data, with a focus on reporting all analytical steps to ensure study replicability (Zhang and Wildemuth, 2005).In addition, key findings were compared with relevant earlier research for contextualization and comparison.

Results and analysis discussion
Table 1 depicts the survey findings, indicating a predominance of female respondents, mainly aged between 21 and 40, residing in Europe and predominantly single.Many held academic degrees and were either students or employed.Their travel frequency was evenly distributed, with a similar number traveling once, twice or more than three times annually.In addition, most had engaged in solo travel before the COVID-19 pandemic.The eight interview participants, including six females and two males aged 24-65, had diverse educational backgrounds and employment statuses.All had traveled solo at least twice before the pandemic, with an average annual frequency of 2-20 trips.Interview responses echoed survey findings, underscoring European residency prevalence among participants.
Examining the types of solo travelers based on survey responses reveals difficulty in categorization.Many respondents predominantly visited cities during their solo trips, often engaging with others easily before, during and after the COVID-19 pandemic.Most interview participants identified as backpackers, favoring urban exploration and outdoor activities.
Pre-pandemic, independence and flexibility were primary motivations for solo travel, with safety and budget constraints.European destinations were preferred, with positive experiences emphasizing social connections.Amid the pandemic, half of the respondents continued solo travel, mainly within Europe, facing limited choices due to restrictions.Postpandemic, solo travel resumed with unchanged motivations and interest surged.Attitudes toward solo travelers remained largely unaffected.
Post-pandemic, a significant return to solo travel was observed, driven by the enduring desire for independence and flexibility.Notably, enthusiasm for solo travel increased.Attitudes toward solo Source: Created by the authors j CONSUMER BEHAVIOR IN TOURISM AND HOSPITALITY j travelers remained stable, corroborating survey findings with in-depth interviews.From the evident and implicit data, the manifest and latent content and reinforced by the interviews, we identified four key categories of meanings that represent the core findings of our study as presented below.

Motivation
Table 2 displays shifts in solo travel motivators pre-and post-COVID-19.Flexibility and independence were cited by 54% of respondents before the pandemic, declining to 46% afterward.Similarly, personal growth decreased from 47.6% to 40.4%, while the desire for freedom slightly increased from 40% to 41.9%.Considering the data set, it's important to note that a total of 635 responses were recorded regarding motivations prior to the pandemic, while 523 responses were collected regarding motivations for travel after the pandemic.These trends were supported by in-depth interviews, aligning with theories by Mehmetoglu et al. (2001) and Seow and Brown (2018).Contrary to Mehmetoglu et al. (2001), this research has not confirmed guilt avoidance and selective contact to be solo travel motivations, neither before nor after the pandemic.Looking at push and pull factors according to Dann (1977), one will see that the three main identified solo travel motivators can be classified as such.The main solo travel motivators before and after the COVID-19 pandemic are internal push factors.Again, it is confirmed that the want for independence and flexibility, as well as personal growth and freedom, take a much higher importance on the motivational ladder to go on solo trips than the destination's actual pull factors when it comes to solo travel.Contradicting Aebli et al. (2022) the feeling of weariness and restlessness from staying in one location for an extended period has not been mentioned as one of the motivational factors to travel solo after the pandemic.Looking at gender differences, an interesting finding emerges: 34.5% of women interviewed stated that not having a companion was a motivation for solo travel, while only 17.3% of men agreed with this statement.The interviewed women further reinforced these findings by affirming that the lack of a companion served as a motivation for their solo travels.

Perceived constraints
When examining solo travel constraints before the COVID-19 pandemic, four major factors emerge: safety concerns (38.8%), budget limitations (36.4%), anxiety about potential mishaps (32.8%) and fear of loneliness (31.2%) (see Table 3).Those constraints found in the  Source: Created by the authors j CONSUMER BEHAVIOR IN TOURISM AND HOSPITALITY j survey align with the constraints found in the in depth-interviews.According to Wilson (2004), anxiety and fear of loneliness are intrapersonal constraints, influenced by the solo traveler's psychological attitudes.Interestingly, twice as many women as men identified with these constraints.Safety concerns, which can be both intrapersonal and structural, were also more commonly reported by women.Yang (2021) notes that structural constraints, including physical and demographic factors, can impede leisure participation, with budget being a notable example.Budget constraints are especially pronounced in solo travel, where costs cannot be shared, with a higher awareness among men compared to women regarding budget limitations.
Major solo travel and general travel constraints during the COVID-19 pandemic have been the destination choice/accessibility (68.9%), the choice of activities at the destination (44.3%), the accommodation (25%) as well as transportation to the destination (32%).All defined as structural constraints according to Yang (2021).Those were not the only identified constraints; also, the fear of being infected and infecting other people have been minor travel constraints during the COVID-19 pandemic, but not major enough to be the final reason to keep individuals away from traveling.Nevertheless, the motivation to escape the lockdown outweighed all concerns as during the pandemic in this study half of the survey respondents have traveled solo as well as all interviewees.
Looking at the constraint effects mitigation model by Hubbard and Mannell (2001) and the advanced version by Loucks-Atkinson and Mannell ( 2007), it can be confirmed that during the period of COVID-19, even though solo travelers have had faced major travel constraints such as travel restrictions and the destination accessibility, their motivation to escape the lockdown and regain a piece of normality outweighed those concerns.This resulted in half of the respondents traveling solo during the COVID-19 pandemic despite all the challenges and possible problems.Therefore, negotiation has had a mitigating impact on solo travel constraints and a positive impact on the motivation and therefore also a positive impact on the persuasion of solo trips during the COVID-19 pandemic.Though, if the risk perception has been high enough, then the physical reality of crowds did negatively affect the travel desire, confirming the findings by Silva et al. (2022).

Destination choice
Based on empirical data, destination choices show consistency before, during and after the pandemic, particularly favoring European countries.et al., 2021).However, an inconsistency emerged among male respondents, with a higher proportion disagreeing with the importance of domestic destinations during the COVID-19 pandemic compared to female respondents.In addition, more men than women acknowledged the impact of destination choice on solo travel.

Interests and trends
The observed surge in interest in solo travel, with 66.8% of the survey respondents expressing heightened curiosity, corresponds to predictions of a post-pandemic solo travel boom.These findings are bolstered by the in-depth interviews revealing a growing inclination toward solo travel post-pandemic, attributed to a heightened awareness of future uncertainties.The pandemic's limitations and uncertainties have underscored the importance of flexibility and independence in travel planning.This surge in solo travel interest can be interpreted as a reaction to restrictions on group travel and a desire for personal autonomy and decision-making.However, this heightened interest may only j CONSUMER BEHAVIOR IN TOURISM AND HOSPITALITY j represent a temporary shift, in line with findings by Wen et al. (2021).The altered attitudes of local communities and fellow travelers toward solo travelers may also be linked to the pandemic's impact on solo travel.The perception of solo travelers as potentially selfish or risky during the pandemic mirrors heightened health and safety concerns.Consistent with Wen et al. (2021), this suggests that the pandemic has affected individuals differently based on their circumstances, making generalizations challenging.The pandemic fostered a sense of camaraderie among travelers, creating a shared understanding and support system due to the unique challenges faced.However, COVID-19's influence on motivation is transient, aligning with studies by Huang et al. (2021) andS anchez-P erez et al. (2021), indicating that pandemic-related changes in travel behavior are likely short-term.Gender differences are noteworthy, with more women expressing dissent toward seeking freedom as a motivation to travel post-COVID-19 compared to men.

Conclusions
This study sheds light on the dynamic interplay of motivations, constraints, and destination choices shaping solo travel experiences both pre-pandemic and during the COVID-19 era.
Prior to the pandemic, independence and flexibility were predominant motivators, echoing findings by Mehmetoglu et al. (2001) and Osman et al. (2020).Safety and budget considerations were significant constraints, as highlighted by Wilson (2004) and Yang (2021).European destinations were favored, aligning with predictions by Wen et al. (2021) and indicating the influence of individual backgrounds on destination choices.During the pandemic, a divergence in travel behavior emerged, with some continuing solo travel within limited options while others refrained, reflecting the profound impact of the pandemic on travel perceptions.While gender differences were scarcely observed, notable disparities emerged in certain aspects.Safety concerns were more frequently confirmed by women than men.In addition, women expressed not finding a companion as a travel motivation, whereas men were more likely to cite budget constraints.
Post-pandemic findings reveal a resurgence in solo travel interest, with motivations remaining unchanged but concerns over companionship and planning reduced.This aligns with predictions by Wen et al. (2021) and the observed trend of "traveling for revenge" as introduced by Okafor et al. (2022).Furthermore, respondents, primarily aged between 21 and 40 years old, confirmed a motivation for post-pandemic travel due to a sense of confinement.This shift underscores a heightened appreciation for solo travel as a means of personal growth and social connection.Paradoxically, the pandemic era eased certain constraints for solo travelers, offering a more streamlined travel experience despite ongoing health risks.Moreover, men were more aware of the impact of destination choice on solo travel and were more inclined to view seeking freedom as a motivation for travel post-COVID-19.

Theoretical implications
This study's findings carry significant theoretical implications for understanding solo travel behavior, especially in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic.First, it underscores the enduring importance of intrinsic motivations for solo travel, even amidst global crises.This highlights the need to expand current theoretical models to incorporate the resilience and adaptability demonstrated by solo travelers in response to such challenges.Moreover, the impact of global crises on solo travel behavior highlights the need for theoretical frameworks in tourism research to integrate concepts such as shock impacts on travel motivations and constraints.The emergence of the concept of "traveling for revenge" postpandemic offers an intriguing avenue for further theoretical exploration within this framework.In addition, solo travel can be interpreted as a societal response to broader changes, reflecting an increasing interest in individualism (Klinenberg, 2012;Santos et al., 2017).This societal shift poses a challenge for theoretical tourism models to adequately account for evolving dynamics, including gender influences on travel behavior.
j CONSUMER BEHAVIOR IN TOURISM AND HOSPITALITY j Furthermore, the study sheds light on the resilience and adaptability of solo travelers amidst the changing travel landscape brought about by the pandemic.It emphasizes the persistence of core motivations for solo travel, such as independence and personal growth, despite external disruptions, thus enhancing our theoretical understanding of travel motivations.

Practical implications
The paper provides practical implications and valuable insights for travel industry stakeholders, including tour operators, travel agencies and tourism boards, in tailoring their services to meet the evolving needs and motivations of solo travelers in the post-pandemic world.It is important to note that many changes in solo travel motivation and behavior appear to be short-term, aligning with studies suggesting the pandemic's impact on travel behavior may not be long-lasting.This can inform marketing and business strategies, acknowledging that some changes may be temporary.These practical implications provide a roadmap for the travel industry to adapt to the changing landscape of solo travel, considering the motivations and constraints revealed by the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic.By aligning their services and strategies with the evolving needs of solo travelers, businesses can tap into the growing solo travel market and offer enriching experiences to this segment of travelers.

Limitations and future research directions
This study's limitations include challenges in respondent recruitment and potential biases in survey responses, emphasizing the need for cautious interpretation of the findings.Future research could explore the pandemic's long-term impact on solo travel, considering various demographic factors and geographical contexts to gain a more comprehensive understanding of this evolving phenomenon.Further, an emphasis on gender differences in the context of solo travel should be generated, leading to potential understanding of how gender influences travel behavior in changing global contexts.

Figure 1
Figure 1 Themes from qualitative data in the interviews and survey

Table 1
General demographic information gathered though the survey

Table 2
Top 3 solo travel motivations before and after the COVID-19 pandemic

Table 3
Top 4 travel constraints before and during the COVID-19 pandemic: multiple responses During the COVID-19 pandemic, preferences leaned toward domestic and nearby options, aligning with the solo travelers' countries of residence.As travel restrictions eased, a broader range of destinations emerged, indicating sustained interest in popular European locations.The influence of COVID-19 on destination choice varied among individuals, supporting prior research (Wen