Account hacking

, 269

Account state

, 149–150

Accounting. See also Auditing

, 25–26, 39, 351–352

for crypto assets

, 342–344

systems

, 146–147

treatment

, 346

Ackerman case

, 229

Actual cash value (ACV)

, 219

Ad valorem taxis

, 312–313

Advanced financial services

, 75–76

Advanced network-based information systems

, 275

Aflac (AFL)

, 279

Agent

, 31

Agent-based models (ABMs)

, 134

Agile model

, 270

AIP gateway

, 167

Air-gapped asset

, 349

Airdrops

, 245, 248

Algorand

, 75

Alternative history attack

, 111

Altman Z-score

, 40

American Institute of Certified Public Accountants (AICPA)

, 359–360

Anonymity

, 68, 72

Anonymity data

, 90–91

Application blockchain interface (ABCI)

, 176

Application programming interfaces (APIs)

, 166, 284–285, 334

Application specific integrated circuits (ASICs)

, 73, 109

Artificial intelligence (AI)

, 10, 35–38, 189, 191–197, 294

applications with database and extension with blockchain

, 197–200

blockchain technology and

, 42

combining AI and blockchain for managing and monetizing healthcare data

, 300–301

data analytics

, 192–193

data capture

, 191

data computing

, 192

data storage

, 191–192

descriptive analytics

, 193–195

in other domains and extension with blockchain

, 199–200

predictive analytics

, 195–196

prescriptive analytics

, 197

system infrastructure

, 191–192

Artificial neural networks (ANNs)

, 36

Asset backed tokens

, 75

Asset-backed coins. See Stablecoins

Association rules

, 193–194

Assurance

, 360–362

services

, 359

Asynchronous byzantine fault tolerant (aBFT)

, 76–77

ATBCOIN

, 230

Atomic swaps

, 184–185

Audit

, 360

Auditing. See also Accounting

access and validation controls

, 366–369

blockchain governance

, 365–366

digital assets

, 359

digital assets on blockchain

, 363–364

external auditing and assurance

, 360–362

internal controls over financial reporting

, 364–371

limitations and challenges to auditors

, 370–371

management’s assertions and audit evidence utilizing blockchain

, 361

rights

, 363–364

smart contract testing

, 369–370

valuation

, 363

Auditing Standard 1105

, 362

Auditors, limitations and challenges to

, 370–371

Authenticity

, 126

Automation

, 18–19

Availability

, 296

Balancing feedback loop

, 134

Bank Secrecy Act

, 224

Bayesian statistics

, 195–196

BC. See Bitcoin (BTC)

Big data

, 193

Binance

, 27, 348

Bitcoin (BTC)

, 7, 19–20, 34, 70–71, 74–75, 85, 88, 99, 101, 171, 175, 252, 325

background economics and limitations

, 174–175

blockchain

, 103–108, 171

PoW example case

, 103–108

protocol

, 75

Block

, 52–54

reward

, 132

Blockchain

, 3–7, 9–10, 13, 15, 17–24, 31, 50–52, 141, 157, 207, 275, 297, 359

architecture of

, 52–55

auditing digital assets on

, 363–364

block hashing

, 56

blockchain for sustainable development

, 40

business process improvement

, 40–41

components

, 15–16

concepts

, 50

consensus

, 20–21

consensus algorithms

, 59–60

credit scoring

, 34–37

crypto tax compliance

, 252–254

cryptocurrency

, 16–17

cryptographic hashing

, 55–56

decentralization

, 51–52

decreased costs

, 163–164

distributed ledger

, 57–59

efficiency

, 160

elements

, 157–159

FAQs applied retroactively or as of date of issuance

, 247

Forced Fit to and

, 226

foreign reporting guidance

, 249

fraud detection using

, 43–44

governance

, 365–366

Hard Forks and Airdrops

, 248

and healthcare industry

, 41–43

immutability

, 52

implementation

, 27

importance in internet age

, 23–24

interoperability

, 166–167

interpreting third-party information reporting standards

, 248–249

key properties of

, 51

lack of standardization

, 165

managing food supply

, 37–38

managing water usage during climate change

, 37

Merkle hash tree and root

, 57

models

, 24–25

obstacles to blockchain adoption

, 26

operational procedure

, 60–61

predicating customer default in e-commerce

, 44

promise of

, 25–27, 160–164

real-time accounting and credit-risk modeling

, 39–40

regulatory ambiguity

, 167–168, 246–252

review and emerging applications

, 32–45

second chance of

, 174

sharing services

, 38–39

signature

, 57

speed and scalability

, 164–165

staking reward taxation

, 249–251

state of

, 172–173

tax implications of virtual currency

, 241–246

taxation related to capital formation

, 251–252

technical challenges

, 61–62, 164–167

technology

, 3–4, 55–60, 223, 259–261, 325

as tool to break poverty chain

, 44–45

traceability

, 162–163

transparency

, 160–162

types of blockchain networks

, 50–51

virtual currency question

, 251

2019 Virtual Currency Guidance

, 246–247

for voting

, 280–281

Blockchain adoption

, 301–305

barriers

, 301–304

blockchain-based healthcare systems

, 304–305

challenges and considerations to blockchain implementation

, 267–269

data malleability challenges

, 269

data size and system bandwidth challenges

, 268

decision metrics

, 267

evaluating organizational capabilities

, 264–267

identifying purpose for implementing blockchain

, 261–262

identifying real cost of implementing blockchain

, 262–264

implementation risks

, 265–266

life cycle approach to implementation

, 270–272

maintaining blockchain

, 267

personnel qualifications

, 265

preparing for blockchain implementation

, 260–264

system latency challenges

, 268

system scalability challenges

, 268–269

system security challenges

, 269

system throughput challenges

, 268

technical and organizational capability

, 265

technological challenges

, 268–269

total cost of ownership

, 266

transaction authentication challenges

, 269

Blockchain applications

investment management and reporting

, 321–322

for mortgage originations

, 319

for mortgage servicing

, 319–320

physical maintenance and monitoring

, 321

property management and leasing for

, 320–321

for real estate finance

, 318–322

to real estate operations

, 320–322

for real estate transactions

, 316–318

for secondary market operations

, 320

Blockchain layers

, 83–85

CBDCs

, 92–93

comparing private and public blockchains

, 86–88

evaluating non–public blockchain

, 96–97

motivating hybrid blockchains

, 88–92

payment system projects by monetary authorities

, 93–94

private blockchains

, 85–86

transportation tracking

, 94

Blockchain networks

, 121

model selection

, 264

Blockchain-based digital assets

, 121

Blockchain-based evaluation systems

, 38

Blockchain-based healthcare data management

, 298–301

combining AI and blockchain for managing and monetizing healthcare data

, 300–301

on-and off-chain data management

, 299–300

Blockchain-based healthcare systems

, 304–305

Blockchain-based identity management approaches

, 304–305

Blockchain-based property record

, 317

Blockchain-based sharing services

, 39

Blockchain-powered real property records

, 315–316

Borderless money

, 19–20

“Break-glass” mechanisms

, 303

Bribery attack

, 114

BTC for Liquid Bitcoin (L-BTC)

, 179–180

Burn-and-mint equilibrium model (BME model)

, 129

Burn-and-mint tokens

, 129

Business applications of blockchain

, 146–149

business-to-business transactions made secure and simple

, 148–149

positive disruptions in business practices

, 146–148

Business model

, 167

Business process improvement

, 40–41

Business-to-business transactions (B2B transactions)

, 148–149

Business-to-consumer transactions (B2C transactions)

, 148

Byzantine Fault Tolerance (BFT)

, 59–60, 100

Byzantine Generals’ Problem

, 100

Byzantine-fault tolerance method

, 116–117

Capital

, 351

CargoX

, 332

Cash conversion cycle (CCC)

, 329

Censorship resistance

, 68, 71–72

Central bank cryptocurrency (CBCC)

, 92–93

Central bank digital currencies (CBDCs)

, 17, 91–93

Central processing units (CPUs)

, 101

Centralization

, 22

of mining

, 109–110

Centroid-based clustering

, 194

Certified Professional Accountants (CPA)

, 359–360

Chain-split refresher

, 178

Chainanchor

, 148

Chainlink

, 182

Charitable contributions of virtual currencies

, 245

Chief financial officer (CFO)

, 212

CKAN

, 122

Class action litigation

, 229–230

Classical AI

, 189

Climate change, water usage management during

, 37

Closing process

, 316

CLSNet

, 286

Clustering

, 194–195

Coin

, 32

CoinTracker. io

, 253–254

Cold wallet

, 349

Commercial crime

insurance policies

, 209–212

policies

, 10

Commercial general liability policies (CGL policies)

, 213–216

Commodities Futures and Trading Commission (CFTC)

, 11, 241, 343

Complex adaptive dynamics Computer-Aided Design (cadCAD)

, 135

Computational problem solving

, 34

Computer fraud

, 212–213

Confidentiality

, 295

Conflict minerals

, 162–163

Consensus

, 99, 176

methodology

, 15, 21

protocols

, 55, 68–71

Consensus algorithms

, 8, 49–50, 59–60

BFT

, 60

PoET

, 60

PoS

, 60

PoW

, 59

Consensus mechanisms

, 8, 99–100, 143, 325–326

Byzantine-fault tolerance method

, 116–117

DBFT

, 116–117

delegated proof of stake

, 114–115

other consensus mechanisms

, 114–117

PBFT

, 116–117

PoA

, 116

PoB

, 116

PoC

, 116

PoET

, 115

PoR

, 115–116

PoW

, 101–103

ProgPoW

, 115

proof of stake

, 112–114

proof of storage

, 115

proof of work/proof of stake hybrid

, 115

Consortium blockchain

, 85–86, 94, 159, 171

model

, 25

Constraints

, 133

Consumer adoption of blockchain

blockchain improvement

, 144–146

business applications

, 146–149

consumer applications

, 149–151

effect on individuals

, 149–151

functions in government

, 143–144

government applications

, 142–146

Control disclosures

, 352–354

Convex programming

, 197

CoreLogic

, 315–316

Corporate governance

, 39

Cosmos

, 176–177

Cost

, 23, 88

Cost identification of implementing blockchain

, 262–264

adapting internal procedures and processes

, 264

attracting and retaining qualified people

, 264

data conversion and programming costs

, 263–264

hardware costs

, 262

selecting blockchain network model

, 264

software costs

, 262–263

COVID-19

, 18–19, 162–163

virus

, 304

Credit reporting

, 35

Credit scoring

, 34–37

Credit-risk modeling

, 39–40

Crime policies

, 209

Cross-authenticatio

, 167

Cross-border logistics

, 331–332

Cross-chain

atomic swaps

, 184–185

chain-split refresher

, 178

compatibility

, 185–186

interoperability approach

, 167

technology

, 177–178

Crypto accounting. See also Bitcoin (BTC)

accounting for crypto assets

, 342–344

control disclosures

, 352–354

custody

, 348–349

disclosures

, 351

governmentally managed crypto assets

, 349–351

smart contracts

, 354–355

stablecoin reporting

, 346–348

Crypto assets. See also Bitcoin (BTC)

, 13, 17–18, 22, 341

accounting for

, 342–344

complicating factors

, 343–344

ecosystem

, 21–22

governmentally managed

, 349–351

intangible classification

, 342–343

technology

, 20

valuation of

, 344–346

volatility

, 343

Crypto collectibles

, 128

Crypto exchanges

, 75

Crypto R

, 245

Crypto S

, 245

Crypto tax compliance

, 252–254

ideology

, 254

poor to no information reporting

, 253

reconciliation burden

, 253–254

Crypto tokens

, 121–122

Cryptocurrencies. See also Virtual currencies (VCs)

, 13, 16–17, 67, 126, 207, 219, 220, 223, 254, 299, 341, 343

agnostic

, 285

bitcoin

, 4

Forced Fit to and

, 226

options

, 6

sheer volatility of

, 224

Cryptoeconomics

, 8, 67, 69–71, 132–133

Cryptographic/cryptography

, 31, 341

algorithms

, 49

hash

, 102

hashing

, 49–50, 55–56

signature

, 146–147

tokens

, 121

“Cryptographically secured ledger”

, 223

Cryptopia

, 348

Currency

, 20

option

, 283

swap

, 283–284

Custody

, 348–349

Cyber insurance policies

, 10, 216–219

Cybersecurity

, 27

threat

, 223–224

Cypherpunks

, 175–176

Dai (cryptocurrency-backed stablecoin)

, 127

Danish tax authority (SKAT)

, 288

DAO Hack

, 178

dApps

, 132

Dash

, 249–250

Data

, 189

analytics

, 192–193

breach

, 216

capture

, 191

computing

, 192

conversion and programming costs

, 263–264

immutability

, 89–90

management

, 312–313

mining

, 189

privacy

, 90–91

processing

, 22

science

, 189

storage

, 191–192

traceability

, 296

Database

, 190

De Facto interoperability

, 175–176

Decentralization

, 9, 22, 51–52, 68, 71, 159, 172–173, 370–371

Decentralized applications (dApps)

, 8, 125, 171

Decentralized Autonomous Organization (DAO)

, 75–76, 89, 135–136, 207, 223

Decentralized cryptocurrencies

, 16–17, 344

Decentralized cryptocurrency exchanges (DEXs)

, 75–76

Decentralized finance (DeFi)

, 76, 171

Decentralized markets

, 68

Decentralized network governance

, 135–136

Decentralized P2P blockchain networks

, 8

Decision metrics

, 267

Decision tree

, 195

Delegated Byzantine fault tolerant (DBFT)

, 116–117

Delegated Proof of Stake (DPoS)

, 68–70, 114–115

Demand–supply matching problem

, 325–326

Denial of service attack (DoS attack)

, 111

Denial-of-service attacks

, 269

Density-based methods

, 194

Depository Trust and Clearing Company (DTCC)

, 278–279

Depository Trust Corporation (DTC)

, 278–279

Descriptive analytics

, 193–195

association rules

, 193–194

clustering

, 194–195

DevOps model

, 270

DGB

, 194–195

Difficulty target

, 53

Digest. See Cryptographic hash

Digital

age

, 207

assets

, 363

currency

, 141–142

tokens

, 75, 126

transactions

, 3–4

Digitization

, 18–19

Digitizing identities on blockchain for real estate

, 287

Digix Gold Token (DGX)

, 91–92

“Dimensional interference”

, 37

Discount tokens

, 129

Discrete token

, 126

Distributed computing

, 68

Distributed denial of service attacks (DDoS)

, 71–72

Distributed hash table (DHT)

, 299

Distributed ledger

, 49–50, 55, 57–59

Distributed ledger technology (DLT)

, 3–4, 83, 90, 275, 277

layer Hierarchy of

, 90

layer–component–process configuration of

, 84

Distributed network

, 3–4

Distribution

, 9, 158

Dividend payments, blockchain for

, 287–288

Double spending

, 99, 110

problem

, 59

Double-spend attack

, 268

Double-spend problem

, 171

Double-spending

, 18

problem

, 23, 32

Dual coin system

, 92

Due diligence

, 316–317

E-commerce

, 23

predicating customer default in

, 44

Electronic funds transfer (EFT)

, 34

Electronic health records (EHR)

, 41, 294–295

Electronic medical sharing

, 43

Electronic voting

, 278

Encryption

, 9, 15–16, 158

Enigma

, 148

Enterprise implementation

, 88

Enterprise resource planning (ERP)

, 327, 333, 334

EOS

, 7

EOSIO

, 74–77

Equifax

, 35

Escrow

, 220

Ether. See Ethereum (ETH)

Ethereum (ETH)

, 7, 74–76, 126, 130, 175, 207–208, 231

blockchain

, 88

chain

, 178

Ethereum-based NFTs

, 131

Ethereum Classic chain (ETC chain)

, 178

Exchange-traded fund (ETF)

, 127–128

Exonum

, 300

Experian

, 35

External auditing and assurance

, 360–362

Fair market value (FMV)

, 242

Fair value measurement

, 363

Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI)

, 208–209

Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA)

, 282

Fiat currency

, 17–18

51% attack

, 114

Finance, AI in

, 198

Finance, blockchain applications in

blockchain for dividend payments

, 287–288

blockchain in real estate

, 286–287

FX trading

, 283–286

insurance applications

, 281–282

opportunities and limitations of blockchains

, 276–277

shareholder voting

, 277–281

Financial accounting

, 359–360

reports

, 39

Financial Accounting Standards Board (FASB)

, 341

Financial Crimes Enforcement Network (FinCen)

, 11, 224, 241

Financial crisis

, 40

Financial Industry Regulatory Authority (FINRA)

, 11, 241

Financial networks

, 68

Financial reporting

, 35–36

internal controls over

, 364–371

Financial resources

, 351

Financial services and markets

, 25–26

Financial statement auditing

, 362

Finney attack

, 110

First-in, first out (FIFO)

, 39, 242

Flight insurance, blockchain application in

, 281–282

Food safety and transportation

, 25–26

Food supply management

, 37–38

FoodTrust

, 332

Forced Fit to cryptocurrency and blockchain

, 226

Ford Motor (F)

, 279

Foreign Account Tax Compliance Act (FATCA)

, 249

Foreign Bank Account Report (FBAR)

, 249

Foreign exchange (FX)

, 12, 275

blockchain applications in

, 284–286

blockchain in practice for

, 286

operations

, 284

swap

, 283

Foreign reporting guidance

, 249

Forks

, 245

Foundation for Interwallet Operability (FIO)

, 183–184

Fraud detection using blockchain technology

, 43–44

Frequently asked questions (FAQs)

, 11, 242, 247

applied retroactively or as of date of issuance

, 247

Functional system

, 316–317

Fundraising events

, 223

Funds transfer fraud

, 209

FX trading. See also Foreign exchange (FX)

, 283–286

instruments

, 283–284

key participants

, 283

Gen-Z individuals

, 24

General Data Protection Regulation in Europe

, 304

Generally accepted accounting principles (GAAP)

, 244

Genesis block

, 54

Genetic algorithms (GA)

, 36

Genetic programming (GP)

, 36, 44

Genie Energy (GNE)

, 279

Geocoding

, 313

Global Data Protection Regulation (GDPR)

, 123

Global positioning system (GPS)

, 191

Global shipping

, 331–332

Global Shipping Business Network (GSBN)

, 331–332

Governance tokens

, 128–129

Governmentally managed crypto assets

, 349–351

government crypto asset example

, 350–351

Graphic processing units (GPUs)

, 109, 192

Great Depression (1929)

, 225

Grid-based methods

, 194–195

Grinding attack. See Precomputing attack

Hackers

, 150

Hard fork

, 76, 208, 248

Hardware costs

, 262

Hardware demand

, 109

Hash code

, 143

Hash Ids

, 32

Hash value

, 56

Hashes

, 34

Hashing

, 101

HawkClient smart contract system

, 180

Health information exchanges (HIE)

, 41, 294–295

Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act of 1996 (HIPAA)

, 296

Healthcare, blockchain applications in

applying blockchain in different healthcare scenarios

, 297–298

blockchain adoption

, 301–305

blockchain-based healthcare data management

, 298–301

motivation and advantages of

, 295–298

requirements

, 295–296

Healthcare

, 27

AI in

, 198–199

blockchain and healthcare industry

, 41–43

blockchain applications in

, 12

Heuristic search

, 197

HL Fabric

, 286

Hot wallet

, 348, 349

Howey test

, 210, 225, 228–232

Human error in recording office

, 318

Hybrid blockchain

, 34, 85

applications

, 91

data immutability

, 89–90

data privacy and anonymity

, 90–91

motivating

, 88–92

stablecoins

, 91–92

Hybridizing AI

, 37

Hyperledger (HL)

, 284–286

Fabric

, 299–300

Sawtooth’s framework

, 60

Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP)

, 124–125

IBM

, 262

e-BL project

, 94–95

Food Trust

, 330

Identification (ID)

, 242

“Identity-checking” blockchain

, 89

“Immunity passports”

, 304–305

Immutability

, 9, 52, 101, 158, 370–371

Inflation

, 19

Information frictions

, 161

Information system (IS)

, 276

Information technology (IT)

, 262

Information technology general controls (ITGCS)

, 365

Initial coin offerings (ICOs)

, 75, 128, 223, 251–252

Initial exchange offerings (IEOs)

, 251–252

Innovation frictions

, 161–162

Insurance

, 25–26, 207

claims

, 27

Insurance applications, blockchain and

, 281–282

application in flight insurance

, 281–282

application in risk-pooling

, 282

Insurance Services Office (ISO)

, 215–216

Integrating technology

, 38

Integrity

, 295–296

Intellectual property

, 25–27

management

, 41–42

Intended audience

, 6

Inter Planetary File System (IPFS)

, 299

Inter-Blockchain Communication protocol (IBC protocol)

, 176

Interaction frictions

, 161

Interest income

, 250

Internal controls over financial reporting

, 364–371

Internal Revenue Bulletins (IRBs)

, 247

Internal Revenue Code (IRC)

, 250

Internal Revenue Service (IRS)

, 10–11, 214, 224, 241, 247, 346

International Accounting Standards Board (IASB)

, 341

Internet

, 49, 173–174, 316

of blockchains

, 23–24, 172

Internet 2.0

, 15

Internet of Things Application (IOTA)

, 171–172

Internet Protocol (IP)

, 124–125

Interoperability

, 9–10, 26, 171–172, 285

innovations in

, 184

Interoperability of blockchain (Interopchains)

, 166–167, 176–177

Cosmos

, 176–177

cross-chain technology

, 177–178

Polkadot

, 177

Interoperation

, 61

InterPlanetary File System (IPFS)

, 125

Interpreting third-party information reporting standards

, 248–249

Investment contract

, 10–11

Investment management and reporting, blockchain applications for

, 321–322

Investors

, 242

Just-in-time (JIT)

, 35–36

KSI

, 304

Last-in, first out (LIFO)

, 39, 242

Liability insurance

, 10

Libra

, 94

stablecoins

, 127–128

Libra Association model

, 17, 86

Life cycle approach

, 270–272

development phase

, 271

implementation phase

, 272

integration and testing phase

, 272

operation and maintenance phase

, 272

planning phase

, 270

systems analysis and requirements phase

, 270–271

systems design phase

, 271

Life cycle model

, 11–12

Lightning

, 184–185

Like kind exchange

, 244–245

Linear regression

, 195

Liquid

, 75

sidechain

, 179–180

Listings, blockchain for

, 287

Liveness/denial of service attack

, 114

Logistics

, 25–26

regression

, 37

Long short-term memory network (LSTM network)

, 38

Long Term Capital Management (LTCM)

, 19

Long-range attack

, 113

Machine learning (ML)

, 38, 189, 300

Majority attack

, 111

Maker (MKR)

, 92

MakerDAO

, 92

MapReduce

, 192

Marking-to-market

, 346

Massachusetts Bay Insurance Company (MBIC)

, 212

MasterCard

, 175

Mastercoin

, 75

Mechanism design theory

, 132–133

Medical record sharing

, 43

Medium of exchange (MoE)

, 126

tokens

, 127–128

MedRec

, 151

Megabyte (MB)

, 164

Melon Protocol

, 135–136

Merkle hash tree and root

, 49–50, 55, 57

Merkle root

, 53, 103

hash

, 103–104

Merton model

, 40

Microsoft SQL Server

, 262

Millennials

, 24

Miners

, 16, 52, 54–55, 74, 243–244

Mining

, 56, 101–102

pools

, 109–110

MiPasa

, 301–302, 304

Modularity

, 285

Monetary authorities, payment system projects by

, 93–94

Monetary networks

, 68

Monetizing healthcare data

, 300–301

Money

, 17–20, 210

borderless

, 19–20

Mortgage Electronic Registration System, Inc. (MERS)

, 318

Mortgage originations, blockchain applications for

, 319

Mortgage servicing, blockchain applications for

, 319–320

Multicoin Capital

, 129

Multiple listing service (MLS)

, 316

National Conference of State Legislatures (NCSL)

, 223

National Science Foundation Network (NSFNET)

, 173

National Security Agency (NSA)

, 15–16

Nature

, 208

Neo

, 249–250

Network

agents

, 32–33

layer

, 83–85

neural

, 196

New York Stock Exchange (NYSE)

, 279–280

Node

, 16, 52, 54–55

Non-standard consensus protocols

, 70

Nonce

, 53, 55, 149–150

Nonfungible tokens (NFTs)

, 131

Non–public blockchain evaluation

, 96–97

North American Securities Administrators Association (NASAA)

, 235

Nothing-at-stake attack

, 113

Notice 201421

, 242, 244–245, 247, 250–251

Objectives

, 133

Off-chain data

, 150

management

, 299

Office of National Coordinator for Health Information Technology (ONC)

, 294

OKcash

, 249–250

Omnibus account

, 348

On-chain data

, 150

on management

, 299

One-confirmation attack. See Vector 76 attack

OneName

, 150

Open source blockchain networks

, 122

OptiGrid

, 194–195

Oracles

, 151, 167, 181–182, 262

Chainlink

, 182

FIO

, 183–184

Tellor

, 181–182

Original equipment manufacturer (OEM)

, 326–327

Orphan block

, 54, 72

Owners

, 314–315

Ownership

, 148–149, 314

P2P validation protocol

, 73

Paper voting

, 278

Parachain

, 177

Parcel location

, 312–313

Payer/payee

, 244

Payment

card industry

, 175

finality

, 34

Payment system projects by monetary authorities

, 93–94

private payment system issuances

, 94

PCAOB Auditing Standards

, 370–371

Peer-to-peer (P2P)

, 69, 101

blockchain networks

, 8

electronic system

, 32

network

, 49, 142, 327, 341

network co-ops

, 121–122

system

, 260

transactions

, 275

transfers

, 16

Permissioned blockchains

, 151, 159

Permissioned blocks

, 146–147

Permissioned process

, 85

Permissioned technology implementations

, 299

Permissionless blockchain

, 159

Permissionless blocks

, 146–147

Permissionless process

, 85

Permissionless technology implementations

, 299

Permit peer-to-peer transactions (P2P transactions)

, 163–164

Personal property

, 250–251

Personally identifiable information (PII)

, 208–209

Physical assets

, 363

Physical maintenance and monitoring, blockchain applications for

, 321

Plotting

, 116

Polkadot

, 177

Ponzi schemers

, 226

Posterior corruption

, 113

Practical Byzantine fault tolerant (PBFT)

, 116–117

Precision medicine

, 294

Precomputing attack

, 113

Predictive analytics

, 195–196

Prescriptive analytics

, 197

Previous hash

, 53

Price stability mechanism

, 92

Price volatility

, 17

Privacy

, 33

Private blockchain

, 34–35, 85–86, 99, 171

comparing public blockchains and

, 86–88

network

, 51

Private data collection

, 300

Private ledgers

, 34

Private payment system issuances

, 94

Proctor & Gamble Company (P&G)

, 199

Product safety and recalls

, 330–331

Programmatic Proof of Work (ProgPoW)

, 115

Programmatically executable transactions (PETs)

, 83–85

Proof of activity (PoA)

, 116

Proof of burn (PoB)

, 116

Proof of capacity (PoC)

, 116

Proof of Elapsed Time (PoET)

, 59, 60, 115

Proof of retrievability (PoR)

, 115–116

Proof of Stake (PoS)

, 49–50, 59–60, 68–70, 100, 112–114, 150, 171–172, 249–250

delegated

, 114–115

51% attack

, 114

issues of PoS consensus mechanisms

, 113–114

liveness/denial of service attack

, 114

long-range attack

, 113

nothing-at-stake attack

, 113

precomputing attack

, 113

proof of work/proof of stake hybrid

, 115

sybil attack

, 114

Proof of storage

, 115

Proof of Work (PoW)

, 20–21, 49–50, 59, 68–70, 100–103, 132, 171–172, 243–244

additional concerns with

, 110–112

alternative history attack

, 111

bitcoin blockchain and

, 103–108

centralization of mining and mining pools

, 109–110

DoS attack

, 111

Finney attack

, 110

hardware demand

, 109

hashing

, 101

issues of PoW consensus mechanisms

, 108–112

majority attack

, 111

power requirements

, 109

process

, 32–34

protocol

, 74

race attack

, 110

selfish mining attack

, 111–112

SHAs

, 102–103

strategy

, 143–144

Sybil attack

, 111

system

, 87

Vector 76 attack

, 111

Proof-of-state (PoS)

, 21

Proper disposition method

, 253

Property management and leasing, blockchain applications for

, 320–321

Proprietary payment tokens

, 129

Public blockchain

, 7, 31, 34–35, 67–68, 318

background on

, 68–73

bitcoin

, 74–75

common attributes of

, 71–72

comparing private blockchains and

, 86–88

cryptoeconomics and consensus protocol

, 69–71

EOSIO

, 76–77

Ethereum

, 75–76

examples

, 74–76

network

, 50–51

potential benefits and challenges of

, 73

Sia

, 77

Zcash

, 76

Public key

, 31, 144

Public ledger

, 341

Public private key functionality

, 32

Public/permissionless blockchain

, 24–25

Public/private partnerships

, 95–96

QCAD

, 127

Quadriga cryptocurrency exchange

, 364

QuadrigaCX

, 348

Quantum computing

, 208

Quantum Resistant Ledger Foundation (QRL Foundation)

, 208

Quintessential function

, 17–18

R3 Corda blockchain implementation

, 299–300

Race attack

, 110

Radio-frequency identification (RFID)

, 333

Ransomware

, 145–146

Rating systems

, 44

Real estate

, 12–13, 25–26, 311–312

blockchain-powered real property records

, 315–316

case of parcel location and data management

, 312–313

chain of title and proof of claim of real property assets

, 313–314

deal

, 312

information

, 27

issues and challenges

, 312–316

mortgage originations, blockchain applications for

, 319

mortgage servicing, blockchain applications for

, 319–320

parties with interests or obligations to real property assets

, 314–315

real estate finance, blockchain applications for

, 318–322

real estate operations, blockchain applications to

, 320–322

real estate transactions, blockchain applications for

, 316–318

secondary market operations, blockchain applications for

, 320

Real estate, blockchain in

, 286–287

blockchain for listings

, 287

digitizing identities

, 287

Real estate investment trusts (REITs)

, 322

Real property

, 311–312

Real-time accounting

, 39–40

Real-time transmission of information

, 16

Record

, 83–85

Regulatory ambiguity

, 167–168

Regulatory sandbox

, 168

Replacement cost value (RCV)

, 219

Report of Foreign Bank and Financial Accounts (FBAR)

, 249

Reputation systems

, 43

Reserve-backed system

, 92

Retrospective medical data

, 294

Return on investment (ROI)

, 326

Revenue Rule

, 245

Rex MLS Blockchain

, 287

Rights

, 363–364

Risk control

, 198

Risk management

CGL policies

, 213–216

commercial crime insurance policies

, 209–212

computer fraud

, 212–213

cyber insurance policies

, 216–219

future and other solutions

, 219–220

Risk-pooling, blockchain application in

, 282

Root hash

, 57

RSK sidechain

, 180

RSK-ETH bridge

, 180–181

Sarbanes–Oxley Act (2002)

, 365

Satoshi Nakamoto

, 4

Scalability

, 61, 171–172

Search process

, 316

Secondary market operations, blockchain applications for

, 320

Secure Hash Algorithms (SHAs)

, 102–103

Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC)

, 10–11, 223, 226, 241, 278–279, 343

disciplinary cases

, 226–229

timeline of SEC pronouncements

, 230–233

Securities Exchange Act (1934)

, 225, 231

Securities laws

, 225–230

class action litigation

, 229–230

Forced Fit to cryptocurrency and blockchain

, 226

SEC disciplinary cases

, 226–229

Security

, 171–172, 225, 285

Security token offerings (STOs)

, 251–252

Self-custody crypto-asset holdings

, 348–349

Self-sovereign identity

, 150

Selfish mining attack

, 111–112

Semi-Automatic Ground Environment (SAGE)

, 190

Sentiment analysis

, 38

SHA 256. See also Secure Hash Algorithms (SHAs)

, 102

bit encryption methodology

, 15–16

encryption methodology

, 21

hash

, 55

Share classes

, 279

Shareholder voting

, 277–281

blockchain for voting

, 280–281

complications

, 279–280

DTC

, 278–279

electronic and paper voting

, 278

share classes

, 279

Sharing services

, 38–39

Shash rate

, 134–135

Shavers case

, 228

ShipChain

, 332

Short-range attack. See Bribery attack

Sia

, 7

Sia blockchain

, 77

Sidechains

, 178–180

liquid

, 179–180

RSK

, 180

Simple attack

, 113

Small and medium enterprises (SMEs)

, 24

Smart cities, blockchain-based sharing services in

, 38–39

Smart contracts (SCs)

, 35–36, 100, 143, 151, 163, 180, 280–281, 316–317, 328–329, 334, 354–355

testing

, 369–370

transaction automation through

, 334–335

Smart parking

, 38

Snap Inc. (SNAP)

, 279

Social Engineering

, 217

Soft fork

, 208

Software costs

, 262–263

Speed of transactions

, 23

Spiral model

, 270

Spot transaction

, 283

Stablecoins

, 17, 91–92, 345

considerations

, 347–348

reporting

, 346–348

Stake bleeding attack

, 113

Staking reward taxation

, 249–251

Stale block

, 54

Stateful Web

, 124–126

Statistical AI

, 189

STING

, 194–195

Stitch Fix (SFIX)

, 279

Stock-and-flow diagrams

, 134

Store of value (SoV)

, 126

tokens

, 127–128

Stored ledger

, 3–4

Strategic Hub for Innovation and Financial Technology (FinHub)

, 210

Supply chains

, 37

areas of benefits and improvements

, 329–332

blockchain in

, 326–329

current and emerging adoption and implementation issues

, 332–335

ERP systems

, 334

global shipping and cross-border logistics

, 331–332

processes

, 298

product safety and recalls

, 330–331

RFID

, 333

role of existing technologies

, 333–334

top management support

, 335

transaction automation through smart contracts

, 334–335

trust among supply chain partners

, 335

Support vector machines (SVMs)

, 36, 196

Sustainable development, blockchain for

, 40

Sybil attack

, 111, 114

System dynamics modeling

, 135

Systems development life cycle (SDLC)

, 270

Tamper resistant/resistance

, 20, 68, 72

ledger

, 15

Tax

implications of virtual currency

, 241–246

lot ID method

, 242

Tax Cuts and Jobs Act (TCJA)

, 244–245

Taxation related to capital formation

, 251–252

Telegram Group case

, 228

Tellor

, 181–182

Temporary regime

application of securities laws

, 225–230

other pending solutions

, 233–235

timeline of SEC pronouncements

, 230–233

Tenants

, 314–315

Tether

, 75, 91–92

Tezos

, 249–250

Third-party data aggregator tools

, 253–254

Time

, 313–314

Timestamp server

, 32, 53

Title insurance

, 311, 315

Token bridge

, 180–181

RSK-ETH bridge

, 180–181

Token contract

, 129

Token economies

, 8

cryptoeconomics

, 132–133

design

, 131–133

SoV and MoE tokens

, 127–128

token engineering

, 133–136

token fundamentals

, 126–131

token standards

, 129–131

token taxonomy

, 127–129

utility tokens

, 128–129

Web 3.0 technology

, 122–126

Token engineering

, 8, 133–136

Token-network fit

, 133–134

Tokenization

, 9, 158–159

Total cost of ownership (TCO)

, 259–260, 266

Traceability

, 296

of information

, 162–163

Tracking mechanism

, 13

Tradeable tokens

, 129

TradeLens

, 162, 332

Traditional assets

, 363

Traditional fiat currencies

, 15

Traditional information systems

, 276

Traditional intangibles

, 363

Traditional supply chains

, 326–327

Transactions

, 148–149

automation through smart contracts

, 334–335

Transactions per second (TPS)

, 164, 171

Transfer learning

, 42

Transparency

, 23, 68, 72

of blockchain

, 160–162

Transportation tracking

, 94

identity verification projects by public/private partnerships

, 95–96

TransUnion

, 35

Trapdoor

, 304

Triangle framework

, 38

Trojan horses

, 269

Tron

, 75

Trustless systems

, 121

Turing complete protocol

, 76

Two-token system

, 129

Two-way peg

, 180

tZero ATS blockchain

, 287–288

Uniform Commercial Code (UCC)

, 210

Unverified identity

, 147

US Food and Drug Administration

, 43

US Government Accountability Office (GAO)

, 246–247

US Postage Service

, 312–313

USD Coin (USDC)

, 91–92, 127

Users

, 314–315

Utility tokens

, 128–129

Validators

, 74

Valuation

in auditing

, 363

of crypto assets

, 344–346

Vector 76 attack

, 111

Verification

, 370–371

Version

, 53

Virtual currencies (VCs). See also Cryptocurrencies

, 11, 18, 241

airdrops and forks

, 245

calculating capital gains and losses

, 243

charitable contributions of

, 245

general treatment

, 242

investors

, 242

like kind exchange

, 244–245

miners

, 243–244

payer/payee

, 244

question

, 246

tax implications of

, 241–246

Virtual Currency Businesses Act

, 233

Virtual Currency Guidance (2019)

, 246–247

Virtual currency question

, 251

Virtual machines

, 68

Virtual reality

, 235

Viruses

, 269

VISA

, 175

Voatz application

, 141

Voting, blockchain for

, 280–281

Wallets

, 348, 349

standards

, 182–184

Walmart pilot

, 330

Waltonchain project

, 94–95

Water usage management during climate change

, 37

Waterfall model

, 270

Wealth management

, 198

Web 3.0 technology

, 8, 122–126

Stateful Web and Web 3.0 stack

, 124–126

web evolution

, 123–124

Weimar Republic of Germany

, 19

Whales

, 244–245

Work tokens

, 129

World Wide Web (WWW)

, 191

Consortium

, 173–174

Zcash

, 7, 76

Zero-knowledge proofs

, 173

Zillow

, 315–316

Zones

, 176