Academia

, 70

Access

, 249

Active agents

, 216–217

Ad hoc working group

, 9

‘Adolescents’ sense of competence

, 141

“Age”

, 161

Anecdotes

, 177–187

“Annual pay”

, 161

Architecture and Urbanism course

, 243–244

Arya Samaj

, 172

Asymmetry

, 19

Attrition analysis

, 265

“Austerity” policies

, 127

Bachelor-level enrollment, gender imbalances in

, 153

Bangladesh

, 213

data analysis procedures

, 218–219

educational quality

, 219–220

higher education and development in

, 216–217

job market aspirations

, 222–223

limited legal awareness

, 221–222

methodological approach

, 218

reflections on social norms and household dynamics

, 220–221

research findings

, 219

theoretical framework and research question

, 213–214

trends in women’s education and empowerment in developing countries

, 215–216

women’s college in Northern Bangladesh

, 218–227

Bangladesh National University

, 218

“Bonus”

, 161

“Bottom-up” agitation

, 216–217

Brahmanas

, 171

Brahmo Samaj

, 172

Brazilian Association of Education (ABE)

, 232–233

Brazilian educational system

, 232

Brazilian Higher Education

arriving at UFSC and observing dynamics of women

, 237–240

dynamics of women per shift at UFSC

, 239

female audience in sought-after courses at UFSC

, 239–240

presence of women in most popular courses at UFSC

, 240–247

profile of ingressants in

, 234–237

UFSC enrollment by sex

, 238

“CAMES agrégation” in Anatomy and Neurosurgery

, 142

Canadian higher education

, 273–274

‘feminization of education, backlash, and boys’ underachievement

, 274–276

fields of study by gender

, 277–280

postsecondary educated women in labor force

, 282–285

racialized women and socioeconomic disparities

, 280–282

Career days

, 143

CEPALSTAT

, 252–253

“Charter of Principles for Equality in Higher Education”

, 25

Chi-Square test

, 261

Child malnutrition

, 173

Child-friendly solutions

, 106

Chipko movement

, 172

Church’s monopoly on education

, 231

Civil Engineering course

, 244–247

Collaboration

, 89

Colombian Higher Education

attrition analysis

, 265

categories, indicators, and databases

, 251–252

characterization

, 253–255

characterization of gender participation in

, 256–261

Colombian public policy

, 266–269

after graduation

, 265–266

method

, 249–269

participation of Colombian women in higher education

, 255–256

statistical association analysis

, 261–265

Colombian Society of Mathematics

, 269

Comitati Unici di Garanzia (CUG)

, 81–82

Commission of Sati (Prevention) Act (1987)

, 174

Complementary needs theory

, 225

Conservative Government’s higher education policy

, 98

Côte d’Ivoire

, 135

causes of girls’ low representation in STEM

, 137–141

economic factors

, 139–140

factors related to education system

, 139

Ivorian female scientists of reference

, 141–143

proposals for boosting girls’ motivation for science and technology education

, 143–144

psychological factors

, 140–141

sociocultural factors

, 137–138

university situation of girls in

, 136–137

Coverage

, 249

Cramer’s V test

, 261

Cultural

revolution in Iran

, 193, 195–196, 203

stereotypes

, 141

Curricula

, 90

“Dalla parte delle bambine” (Belotti)

, 80

Daneshgah-e-Azad-e-Eslami (Free Islamic University)

, 196

Decennial Education Plan

, 268

Democratization

, 18–19

of education

, 20

Differentiated socialization

, 39–40

Diotima: Il pensiero della differenza sessuale (Muraro)

, 82

Discourses

, 177–187

Discrimination

, 148

“DIVA project” initiative

, 90

Doctoral-level enrollment, gender imbalances in

, 154–155

Domestic work, gendered division of

, 45–47

Double power

, 27

Dowry Prohibition Act (1961)

, 174

Dual Approach

, 67

Economic and European Community (EEC)

, 21–22

Economic Crisis on Equality Policies at Spanish university

, 126–127

Economic independence of women

, 27

Education for All (EFA)

, 217

“Education of Muslim children”

, 65

Education(al). See also Higher education (HE)

in Africa

, 139

gender

, 42

in modern economy

, 215

segregation of gender

, 75

of women

, 231

Employment characteristics of graduate women

, 106–109

employment, unemployment, inactivity rate

, 106–107

graduate wage benefit and individual rate of return on higher education

, 107–109

Empowering women

, 76

Empowerment

, 213–214

Engineering schools

, 35

“Enthusiasm for education” period

, 232–233

EPEAEK II

, 67–69

Equal Remuneration Act (1976)

, 174

Equal Treatment and Promotion of Equal Opportunities Act

, 94

EQUAPOL European research program

, 68

Equity

, 249

ERA Roadmap

, 124–125

Estado Novo

, 17–18, 26

European Commission

, 122

European Research Area (ERA)

, 70, 122–123

European Social Fund

, 67

Family

academic tradition

, 41–42

socialization

, 40–42

“Fecundity management”

, 76

Federal Institutes and Federal Centers of Technological Education (CEFETs)

, 234

Federal University of Santa Catarina (UFSC)

, 233, 237–238

dynamics of women per shift at

, 239

enrollment by sex

, 238

female audience in sought-after courses at

, 239–240

presence of women in most popular courses at

, 240–247

Female

audience in sought-after courses at UFSC

, 239–240

courses

, 236

insertion in labor market

, 26–28

presence in higher education in Portugal

, 20–25

protagonism

, 20

ratio

, 96–98

socialization process

, 18

Female Stipend Program (FSP)

, 217

Feminine

, 18

Feminine Mystique, The (Friedan)

, 81

Feminism

, 93–94

Feminization

of Canadian higher education

, 274–276

of Greek higher education

, 57–59

of higher education

, 193, 196–198

of higher education in France

, 33

of Italian culture

, 78–79

Femmes Ingénieurs association

, 39

Flanders

, 1

current situation in

, 2–3

gender inequalities in higher education in

, 1–2

gender segregation

, 6

policies and initiatives in

, 4–8

Flemish Education Council

, 4–5, 7

Flemish Government

, 4–5

Flemish interuniversity council

, 4–6

Focused group discussion

in humanities

, 182–184

in management

, 185–187

in sciences

, 184–185

“Founding Mothers”

, 79

France

feminization of higher education in

, 33

higher education in

, 33–34

French higher education

, 33–34

evolution of proportions of women in

, 38

family socialization

, 40–42

gendered disparities

, 39–40

gendered division of labor market and domestic work

, 45–47

lack of significant impact on part of official texts

, 39

orientation process

, 44–45

place of mathematics

, 43–44

progress and inequalities

, 35–39

socialization at school

, 42–43

students enrolled in different sectors

, 37

women’s long road to majorityhood

, 34–35

Gender Equality Index

, 84, 95

Gender Equality Society Basic Law

, 155–156

Gender Gap Index

, 95

Gender imbalances

, 4–6, 9, 153–157

in bachelor-level enrollment

, 153

in doctoral-level enrollment

, 154–155

efforts to reducing imbalances

, 155–157

in master’s-level enrollment

, 153–154

in professional schools

, 155

Gender inequality

, 19

in education

, 21–22

gender segregation in Italian Academia

, 79–82

in higher education in Flanders

, 1–2

international data

, 82–85

in Italy

, 75–85

national landscape

, 78–79

Gender Parity Index (GPI)

, 175, 257

GENDER-NET Plus

, 125

Gender(ed)

action plan

, 5–6

balance

, 3, 8

differences

, 82

disparities

, 39–40

division of labor market and domestic work

, 45–47

education policies

, 69–70

equality

, 19–20, 75–76, 90, 147–148

female insertion in labor market

, 26–28

female presence in higher education in Portugal

, 20–25

gaps in higher education

, 1

in India

, 175–176

mainstreaming

, 66–67

monitor

, 6–7

policies genesis in Spain

, 118–121

segregation in Italian Academia

, 79–82

socialization

, 39–40

stereotypes

, 44–45

trends in Italian HE

, 85–87

GENERACTION

, 126

General Secretariat for Gender Equality (GSGE)

, 63–64

General skills

, 165–166

Glass ceilings

, 28, 77, 103–104, 122–123, 128–129

syndrome

, 25

Global feminism

, 201–202

Global Gender Gap Index for Japan

, 148

Global Gender Gap Report

, 89

Graduate

students

, 151–153

wage benefit and individual rate of return on higher education

, 107–109

Graduation

, 249

“Grandes Ecoles”

, 36–38

Greek higher education

disparities by gender and fields of study

, 59–60

feminization of

, 57–59

labor market structure and disparities in access and persistence

, 60–62

public policies of gender balance

, 66–70

state of work knowledge

, 62–66

Gross Enrollment Ratio (GER)

, 96, 176

Group of 7 (G7)

, 280–281

Guidance

, 90

Harare Declaration

, 135

Headcount

, 96–97

Hellenic Statistical Authority (ELSTAT)

, 58

Higher Council of Education

, 194

Higher education (HE)

, 75, 85, 200

currents status of women in education prior to

, 174–175

development in Bangladesh

, 216–217

distribution of women by field of study in

, 98–100

factors influencing women’s access to

, 177–187

feminization of

, 196–198

in France

, 33–34

graduate wage benefit and individual rate of return on

, 107–109

and job market

, 198–200

narratives by women dropped out of

, 178–182

narratives by women pursuing

, 182–187

policies

, 81–82

public policies to promoting gender balance in

, 104–106

system in Flanders

, 2

women in

, 101–104

women in India

, 176–177

women’s motivations and demand for

, 200–202

Higher Education Institutions (HEIs)

, 234, 250

policies of

, 8–13

Higher Secondary Certificate (HSC)

, 225

Hindu property laws

, 221–222

Hindu Succession Act (1956)

, 174

Horizon 2020 Research and Innovation Program

, 124

Horizontal segregation

, 76–77, 88

Household dynamics

, 223

Human capital

, 215

Human Development Index (HDI)

, 213–214

Human Research Ethics Committee

, 218

Humanities, focused group discussion in

, 182–184

Hungarian

critical points in scientific and social debate

, 109–111

distribution of women by field of study in higher education

, 98–100

employment characteristics of graduate women

, 106–109

general tendencies of Hungarian HE and proportion of women

, 96–98

higher education admissions system

, 98–99

perception surveys

, 94–95

proportion of women in higher education and completion rate

, 101–102

public policies to promoting gender balance in higher education

, 104–106

status consistency

, 103–104

women in higher education and labor market

, 101–104

women’s politics

, 93–96

Hungarian Gender Gap Index

, 95

Iberian cultural tradition

, 231

Illusion of equality

, 77

Immoral Traffic (Prevention) Act (1956)

, 174

Imposed segregation

, 75

Inactivity rate

, 106–107

Inclusive excellence

, 126–127

Income disparity

, 157–159

India

currents status of women in education prior to higher education in

, 174–175

factors influencing women’s access to higher education

, 177–187

gender and job market in

, 175–176

historical chronicle of status of women in

, 171–172

legislative provisions for protection of women’s rights and security in

, 174

status of political participation of women in India during contemporary times

, 173–174

status of women in India during contemporary times

, 172–175

women in higher education in

, 176–177

Indian National Army

, 172

Indicators of Education Systems (INES)

, 253

Inequality

, 19

Infant mortality rate (IMR)

, 173

Information System on Science, Technology, and Innovation

, 119

Instrumental empowerment

, 214

International Standard Classification of Education (ISCED)

, 149–151

Intrinsic empowerment

, 214

Invisible bonds

, 77

Iran

cultural revolution in

, 193

feminization of higher education

, 196–198

higher education and job market

, 198–200

problematizing Islamization

, 202–206

women’s motivations and demand for higher education

, 200–202

Iranian Higher Education, women in

, 194–196

Islamic educational revolution

, 195–196

“Islamic packaging” of education

, 204

Islamic Republic

, 200

gender ideology

, 207

Islamization

, 193

in Malakzadeh’s conception

, 205

problematizing

, 202–206

Italy

, 75

collaboration

, 89

critical points and perspectives

, 89–90

curricula and guidance

, 90

gender (in)equality

, 75–85

gender trends in Italian HE

, 85–87

parents and teachers

, 90

stereotypes

, 89–90

study paths and world of work

, 87–89

Japan Science Technology Agency (JST)

, 157

Japanese Higher Education

characteristics in labor market

, 157–164

gender imbalances

, 153–157

solution in higher education

, 164–167

women in

, 149–153

Job market. See also Labor market

, 198–200, 223

aspirations

, 222–223

in India

, 175–176

Kinder, Kuche, Kirche (KKK)

, 26

KU Leuven

, 8–13

“La donna contro sè stessa” (Ravaglioli)

, 80

La Ilustración de la Mujer (The Enlightenment of Women)

, 115–116

Labor

, 216

Labor market. See also Job market

, 5

characteristics in

, 157–164

female insertion in

, 26–28

gendered division of

, 45–47

women in

, 101–104

Labour Market Observatory (OLE)

, 250

Land

, 216

Law and legal frameworks

, 223

Law on Guidelines and Bases (LDB)

, 233

Le Deuxième Sexe (de Beauvoir)

, 81

Leaky pipeline

, 3, 25

Learning at school or university

, 47

Legislative provisions for protection of women’s rights and security in India

, 174

Liberal arts

, 98

Lisbon strategy

, 7

LOIEMH

, 118

Long First Degree (LFD)

, 256

Longer tenure with high salary

, 160–161

Management, focused group discussion in

, 185–187

Masculinization of school dropout

, 20

Master’s-level enrollment, gender imbalances in

, 153–154

Maternity Benefit Act (1961)

, 174

Mathematical and Technological Structures Sciences (SSMT)

, 136–137

Mathematics, place of

, 43–44

Medical Termination of Pregnancy Act (1971)

, 174

Medicine and Day Law course

, 242–243

Mediocrity

, 185–186

Mehrieh tradition

, 201–202

Middle-and upper-class girls

, 46

Millennium Development Goals-8 (MDGS-8)

, 216

Ministry of Education

, 67

Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT)

, 149–151, 156–157

Ministry of Science, Technology and Higher Education

, 23

Mocidade Portuguesa

, 17, 18

Mocidade Portuguesa Feminina

, 17

Modification of the Organic Law of Universities (LOMLOU)

, 120

“Monthly pay”

, 161

Muslim Minority of Western Thrace

, 65

Muslim property laws

, 221–222

Napoleonic model

, 116–117

Narratives

, 177–187

by women dropped out of higher education

, 178–182

by women pursuing higher education

, 182–187

National Agronomic Institute in Paris

, 35

National Development Plan

, 268

National Plan for the Development of the Education/Training Sector

, 136–137

National Program for Gender Equality

, 69

National System of Higher Education Information (SNIES)

, 249–250

Natural sciences, technology, and engineering

, 24

Neo-liberal

approach

, 215

policy turn

, 201–202

Network of Gender Units of Spanish Universities for University Excellence (RUIGEU)

, 128

New Public Management at Spanish university

, 126–127

Night Law course

, 244–247

Nonresident Indian (NRI)

, 180

Observable factors

, 148

Occupation analysis

, 160–164

longer tenure with high salary

, 160–161

shorter tenure with high salary

, 161–164

Ontario Medical Association (OMA)

, 284–285

Ontario Ministry of Education

, 275–276

Organic Law of Secondary Education (LOGSE)

, 117

Organic University Law (LOU)

, 118

Orientation process

, 44–45

Pact Populist school system

, 233

Parental income

, 282

Parents

, 90

academic ambitions

, 41

professions

, 41–42

Passive recipients

, 216–217

Patriarchal family model

, 231

Pedagogical factors

, 139

Pink quotas

, 78

Portugal

economic development

, 18

female presence in higher education in

, 20–25

Portuguese Constitution (1976)

, 18–19

Portuguese educational system

, 21

Portuguese financial crisis

, 28

Postgender studies

, 82

Postsecondary educated women in labor force

, 282–285

Prarthana Samaj

, 172

Pre-Conception and Pre-Natal Diagnostic Techniques (Regulation and Prevention of Misuse) Act (1994)

, 174

Private higher education network

, 22

Privatization process. See also Feminization

, 22

Professional schools, gender imbalances in

, 155

Program for International Student Assessment (PISA)

, 21

Prohibition of Child Marriage Act (2006)

, 174

Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act (2005)

, 174

Pseudonyms

, 219

PSOE government

, 127

Psychology of Sex Differences, The (Maccoby)

, 81

Public policies

of gender balance

, 66–70

to promoting gender balance in higher education

, 104–106

Public Research Organizations

, 120

Quality of education

, 223

Quantitative approach

, 233–234

Quit India Movement

, 172

Rani Jhansi Regiment

, 172

Ready-made garments (RMG)

, 216–217

Recruitment trends

, 97–98

Research and innovation (R&I)

, 124–125

Restart Postdoctoral Fellowship program (RPD program)

, 157

Retention

, 249

Rita Lobato Velho Lopes case

, 232

“Rocco law”

, 79

Royal Decree

, 115

Rural development projects

, 140

Rural societies

, 179

“Salon de l’Enseignement Supérieur de Côte d’Ivoire” (SES-CI)

, 143

“Sati” tradition

, 171

Satyagraha Movement

, 172

School dropout

, 21

School environment

, 139

School of Medicine

, 194

School of Political Sciences

, 194

Science, technology, engineering, mathematics (STEM)

, 2–3, 24–25, 76–77, 136, 273–274, 277

causes of girls’ low representation in

, 137–141

problem

, 4–5

STEM Monitor

, 2–3, 7

Science Education of Women in Canada: A statement of concern, The

, 277

Sciences, focused group discussion in

, 184–185

Scientific research system

, 25

Secondary education

, 20, 232

Secretary of State for Universities, Research, Development, and Innovation (SEUIDI)

, 125–126

Segregation

, 6

“Self-censorship”

, 43–44

Self-segregation

, 75, 77

“Ser Pilo Paga” program

, 253–254

Sexual equality

, 82

Sexual Harassment of Women at Work-place (Prevention and Protection) Act (2013)

, 174

She Figures Report

, 88

Shorter tenure with high salary

, 161–164

Smart economics

, 215

Smritis

, 171

Social Cognitive Career Theory

, 9–10

Social sciences

, 98

Social stratification

, 231

Socialization at school

, 42–43

Society of Jesus

, 231

Socio-cultural norms

, 223

Soft sciences

, 129

Spain

genesis of gender policies in

, 118–121

Spanish Case in European Research Area Post-2020

, 124–126

women’s access to universities in

, 115–118

Spanish Constitution (1978)

, 117

Spanish Science and Technology Strategy

, 119

Spanish university

, 117

current data on presence of women at

, 121–122

in European framework for equality policies

, 122–124

New Public Management and Economic Crisis on Equality Policies at

, 126–127

Specialization

, 260

State Innovation Strategy

, 120

State Plan for Scientific and Technical Research

, 119

Statistical

association analysis

, 261–265

discrimination

, 148

Statistical Center of Iran (SCI)

, 199

Stereotype(s)

, 89–90

threat

, 44–45

Strategic emancipation

, 224–225

Strategic male engagement

, 213

SUPERA Project

, 125

Sustainable Development Goals-17 (SDGs-17)

, 216

Sutras

, 171

Swayamwar

, 171

System for Prevention and Analysis of Dropout in Colombia (SPADIES)

, 250

Taste discrimination

, 166–167

Teachers

, 90

Teaching strategies

, 77

Technical education

, 254

Technological education

, 254

Technological Educational Institutes (TEIs)

, 58

Technological graduates

, 254

“Tenure”

, 161

“Top-down” distribution approach

, 216–217

Toronto Stock Exchange (TSX60)

, 284–285

Traffic in Women, The (Rubin)

, 81

Training

, 225–227

Treatment

, 225–227

Trust

, 224–227

Turnover

, 159–160

“U-shape” effect

, 216–217

Undergraduate students

, 149–151

Unemployment

, 28

rate

, 106–107

United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF)

, 235

United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO)

, 135, 235

Institute of Statistics

, 250–252

University of Tehran

, 194

University Reform Law (1983)

, 117

Unobservable factors

, 148

Upanishads

, 171

Varna system

, 171

Vedas

, 171

Vertical segregation

, 77, 128–129

Violence against women (VAW)

, 221–222

Vlaamse Hogescholenraad (VLHORA)

, 4

Vlaamse Interuniversitaire Raad (VLIR)

, 4

Vlaamse Onderwijsraad (VLOR)

, 4

“Week for the Promotion of Research and Innovation” (SEPRI)

, 143

“Weekly work hours”

, 161

Women

access to universities in Spain

, 115–118

agency

, 213–214

attraction to chemistry

, 35

college in Northern Bangladesh

, 218–227

education in higher education

, 58

emancipation

, 224

in higher education and labor market

, 101–104

in higher education in India

, 176–177

in Iranian Higher Education

, 194–196

in Japanese Higher Education

, 149–153

long road to majorityhood

, 34–35

motivations and demand for higher education

, 200–202

organizations

, 66–67

“Women, Science, and Innovation Observatory” (OMCI)

, 120–121

Women and Science Unit (UMyC)

, 123–124

Working-class girls

, 46

Work–life balance

, 186–187